Discussion Papers 2008. No. 64.
The State of the Info-communication
Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary
CENTRE FOR REGIONAL STUDIES
OF HUNGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
DISCUSSION PAPERS
No. 64
The State of the Info-communication
Markets in Dél-Alföld Region
– Hungary
by
Imre KANALAS – Gábor NAGY
Series editor
Zoltán GÁL
Pécs
2008
1
Discussion Papers 2008. No. 64.
The State of the Info-communication
Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary
ISSN 0238–2008
ISBN 978 963 9052 98 7
© Imre Kanalas, Gábor Nagy
© Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
2008 by Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Technical editor: Ilona Csapó.
Printed in Hungary by Sümegi Nyomdaipari, Kereskedelmi és Szolgáltató Ltd., Pécs.
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Discussion Papers 2008. No. 64.
The State of the Info-communication
Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary
Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................ 5
1 The Info-Communication Infrastructure and Its Use .................................................... 5
1.1 The Fixed-Line Telecommunication in Dél-Alföld .............................................. 5
1.2 The Mobile-Market in the Region ...................................................................... 15
1.3 Alternative Technologies .................................................................................... 18
1.4 The Development of CableTV Networks ........................................................... 23
1.5 The State of the Informatics Market ................................................................... 28
2 Internet-use in the counties of Dél-Alföld .................................................................. 38
2.1 Internet subscribers ............................................................................................. 38
2.2 The spread of internet and broadband subscribers in Dél-Alföld region ............ 41
2.3 Tele-houses and public Internet connection possibilities in Dél-Alföld ............. 46
3 The content provider’s activity in the region ............................................................. 52
3.1 Registration of Domain-name servers ................................................................ 52
3.2 Domain-name registrations by main activity fields ............................................ 56
4 Electronic media market in the Region....................................................................... 58
References ........................................................................................................................ 60
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Discussion Papers 2008. No. 64.
The State of the Info-communication
Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary
List of figures
Figure 1
ADSL accessibility in Dél-Alföld (Oct. 2003) ............................................... 11
Figure 2
ADSL accessibility in Dél-Alföld (Aug. 2005) .............................................. 12
Figure 3
xDSL service providers in Dél-Alföld, 2005 ................................................. 14
Figure 4
Share of Cable-TV connected households by countries, 2002 ....................... 24
Figure 5
Cable-TV local networks in Dél-Alföld (2003) ............................................. 27
Figure 6
Broadband internet use by LAU2 units in Dél-Alföld (30/06/2006) .............. 45
Figure 7
Broadband internet use by LAU2 units in Dél-Alföld (30/06/2007) .............. 45
Figure 8
The location of tele-houses in Dél-Alföld region ........................................... 48
Figure 9
The spatial spread of eHungary points ........................................................... 49
Figure 10 Domain-name registration by LAU 1 units, 2004. ......................................... 55
Figure 11 Domain-name registrations by settlements (LAU 2), 2004. ........................... 55
Figure 12 Localelektronic mediums in Dél-Aflöld, 2005 ............................................... 59
List of tables
Table 1
Number of fix-phone lines in the region .......................................................... 7
Table 2
Indicators of telecommunication in the region, 2000, 2003, 2005 ................... 8
Table 3
Number of ISDN-channels in the region .......................................................... 9
Table 4
Number of mobile phones per 100 households by region .............................. 18
Table 5
Number of Cable-TV connected households per 1000 persons in the
region ............................................................................................................. 26
Table 6
Number of PCs per 100 households by regions ............................................. 29
Table 7
Number of PCs with Internet connection per 100 households by regions ...... 29
Table 8
USE of ICTs in Hungarian households, 2006 ................................................ 30
Table 9
Annual communication expenditures by regions ........................................... 31
Table 10 Computer stock of administration (1998–2005) ............................................. 32
Table 11 Use of ICTs and services in administration (2003, 2005) .............................. 33
Table 12 Use of security tools in administration (2003, 2005) ..................................... 34
Table 13 Types of Internet connections (2003, 2005) ................................................... 34
Table 14 ICT Investments and Expenditures (2003, 2005) ........................................... 35
Table 15 Regional data of informatics in administration (1998–2002)
ICT investment ............................................................................................... 35
Table 16 Share of employees working with PC ............................................................ 36
Table 17 Main characteristics of ICT use in enterprises 2001–2005 ............................ 37
Table 18 Types and number of Internet subscriptions and annual revenue of
he sector ......................................................................................................... 39
Table 19 Types of internet subscriptions by counties, 2004–2006 ............................... 42
Table 20 The number of broadband internet users in Dél-Alföld region,
2006, 2007 ...................................................................................................... 44
Table 21 Number of domain name registrations by counties (1998, 2004) .................. 54
Table 22 The number and share of domain name registrations by main terrains
(1998, 2004) ................................................................................................... 56
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Preface
The DARFT Kht. as the regional development agency of Dél-Alföld (South Great
Plain) Region advertised a planning project, called ‘The Strategy of the
Information Society in Dél-Alföld’. The ‘Strategy’ was one of the basic concepts to
help form out the Regional Operation Program of the Region for the 2007–2013
period, as a part of the National Development Plan.
The two authors with cooperation Dr. Bálint Csatári, the Director of Alföld
(Great Plain) Institute of Centre for Regional Studies (Hungarian Academy of
Sciences) and Mr. Tibor Szarvák, the junior research fellow of Szolnok Group of
Alföld Institute published a report at Discussion Papers Series (No. 42) ‘Regions in
Information Society – A Hungarian Case-study’ in 2004. The ask from DARFT
Kht. to concentrate our investigation deeply into Dél-Alföld Region and renew the
analysis made an opportunity for us not just follow the former scenario, but use the
very recent trends and processes in our paper.
We began our work in 2005 and it was accepted and used by DARFT Kht. in
2006 in the planning phase of Regional Operative Programme. In 2007 we had an
opportunity to re-organize the study and publish it in English. The authors tried to
find the very recent data from the different fields of investigation to show a more
detailed picture of the Dél-Alföld Region.
1 The Info-Communication Infrastructure and Its Use
1.1 The Fixed-Line Telecommunication in Dél-Alföld
The region is particular regarding the fixed-line telecommunication, because in this
area four concessionary service companies work belonging to different proprietory
spheres, realizing different strategies. While in the territory of Békés and Csongrád
county there are 1-1 (but different) service companies (Hungarotel and Invitel), in
Bács-Kiskun the settlements are divided between two service companies (T-Com,
Emitel).1 This type of proprietory diversity aggregate the homogenous development
of the region’s telecommunication network and its service palette.2 At the same
1The situation of Dunafalva is particular. This small village separated from Baranya county and
joined into Bács-Kiskun in the 1990s, since it belongs to T-Com Corp. With the view of ownership,
but it belongs to the regional management of Pécs. Territorially it appears as an isle in the ring of the
districts of Emitel Corp.
2In 2007 the owners of Hungarotel (Hungarian Telephone and Cable Corp., from USA) bought the
second largest fix-phone company of Hungary, Invitel Corp. After the merger the new company
became the main provider both Békés and Csongrád counties. In the same year T-Com the dominant
fix-phone provider in the national market got the majority of Emitel Co., however the two
companies are not merged yet, but on the area of strategic development there will be a closer
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
time the start of the free competition under the influence of the 2003 Single
Telecommunication Act forced the regional service companies to introduce the
newest service possibilities and the formation of subscriber packages attractive for
the subscribers (means: competitive with the other alternatives).3
In the region the activation of T-Com can be conspicuous, which remains a
determinant trade mark through its Internet and cable network companies. In the
first round, the new service companies aimed the entrepreneurial and institutional
clientele, but since 2004 the population clients also came to the scope gradually.
During that year almost 11,000 companies changed service company (its two-thirds
did it in the last quarter, which refers to the quickening of the process), while
barely 2000 client changed service company in the private segment (although the
half of them did it in the last quarter too). In this respect the regional data are not
disposal yet, but estimately not more then some hundreds of companies and not
more than a few dozens private subscribers might be concerned by the fixed-line
number portability in the region. Temporarily this is not the problem, which mostly
occupies the fixed-line service companies.4
The optical fibre backbone network of the region is practically complete, on the
basis of the fusion of Hungarotel and Pantel a national backbone is also available,
which is suitable for the development of the data communication market. The rate
of the network’s digitalisation is at least 90%, which is qualified good in European
comparison, but total coverage would be necessary. The redemption of the
microwave technologies (WLC) used in the period of quantitative development is
continuous, it is almost ended, which renders possible the use of the prosperous
network service system for the involved settlements (primarily in ‘Homokhát’ – a
semi-deserted, sandy area of the region).
All over the country the number of the conventional telephone lines exceeded
the 3 million with a shade of difference (in June of 2005 it decreased near to 2.9
million), the number of the ISDN channels was stagnating around 600,000 after the
beginning of 2003, while the number of the mobile phones approximated over 10
million (and the number of active users are over 9.5 million). While the decrease of
cooperation between them. In this case, the structure of owners simplified, Bács-Kiskun county
belongs to one owner group, and the other two counties to another, but the region’s divided structure
prolonged to a longer term.
3The number of phone lines offered by the alternative service-providers grown up from 12,000
(March 2005) to 160,000 (December 2006). The rate of increase slowed down in 2006, the number
of new clients were 12–13,000 per quaterly, because of the reaction of ‘traditional’ fix-line service
providers (namely, radical decrease of fees). The largest ‘alternative’ company Tele2 (the early bird
of the 6 new actors) – had appr. 60,000 clients – finished its service in 2007, after a four years
period and without a chance for making any profit for the owners. The buyer of the company is
HTCC.
4After a two-and-a-half years term, the number of change rose up to 213,000 in a stagnating-
decreasing market (means 6,5% of total number of fix lines), in a significantly higher volume than
the experts thought in the beginning.
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
the conventional telephone lines is undiminished5 since the end of 1999 (their
number exceeded 3,6 million at that time), deviation exists at most in the rate of
recession between certain measured quarters, in case of the ISDN basically there is
a stagnation, but in case of the mobile phones the increase is slow but continuous
since the middle of 2003. Practically the share of both the number of main lines per
100 inhabitants and the number of the telephones per 100 households signs that the
fixed phone market arrived to a quantitative growth compass, the aim is the
maintenance of the existing subscribers, the quick and radical augmentation of the
percentage of the data communication in the income structure, since the number of
the initial calls, the total duration of the calls also lessen gradually.
In case of Bács-Kiskun and Csongrád county in Dél-Alföld the number of the
fixed lines started to decrease since 1999, according to the national trend (Table 1),
but while in case of the previous county the diminution of the fixed lines may be
estimated barely 7% until the end of 2005, in Csongrád county this rate is well over
15%.
Table 1
Number of fix-phone lines in the region (per 1000 persons)
Year
Bács-Kiskun
Békés
Csongrád
Dél-Alföld
Hungary
1990
67
57
90
96
1993
118
98
149
146
1994
129
101
165
174
1995
156
104
172
211
1996
229
113
249
261
1997
266
254
302
305
1998
297
266
331
335
1999
318
285
350
359
2000
311
295
335
347
2001
304
285
317
368
2002
304
281
306
362
2003
301
274
299
357
2004
299
368
284
285
354
2005
281
241
274
267
343
2006
274
229
263
257
334
Source: KSH, Regional Statistical Yearbooks.
In Békés county the smallest line-density was measured at the end of 2000, but
16% of the subscribers turned away from their service company until the end of
5The appearance of technologies, which are more suitable for the access of Internet considerable
contributes to this phenomenon. Thus, among the 3 million conventional line subscribers barely
54,000 joined the Internet via modem.
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
2005. As a result of this, the number of the fixed lines decreased under 360,000 in
the region at the end of 2005. It meant 12% decrease in relation to 2000 (nationally
the number of the lines definitely did not changed in this period). This diminution
is attributable to the development of the mobile communication possibilities and
the significant decrease of the mobile tariffs (considerably faster than the fixed
line’s tariffs). The measure of the decrease of the number of fixed lines may
indicate that the region’s telecommunication actors, particularly in case of the
business and private segment, were slightly able to develop attractive subscription
packages to prevent the competition of the mobile segment (Table 2). In the region
the 10% of the fixed lines is public, 10% belongs to business subscribers.
Table 2
Indicators of telecommunication in the region, 2000, 2003, 2005
Indecees
Bács-
Békés
Csongrád
Dél-
In % of
Kiskun
Alföld
Hungary
Number of main lines, 2000
174,445
116,754
143,377
434,576
11,44
Number of main lines, 2003
162,924
107,570
127,413
397,907
11,03
Number of main lines, 2005
150,981
92,954
115,984
359,919
10,42
of which personal, 2003
125,726
90,886
99,610
316,222
12,00
of which personal, 2005
119,407
76,981
91,168
287,556
11,40
of which business, 2003
16,907
9,763
12,493
39,163
12,09
of which business, 2005
12,552
9,490
10,699
32,741
10,87
In % of 2000 level, 2003
93.4
92.1
88.9
91.6
94.90
In % of 2000 level, 2005
92.7
84.0
84.5
87.6
100.50
Source: KSH, Regional Statistical Yearbooks.
The fixed line market did not become homogeneous after the establishment of
the supply market, the penetration is above 300 fixed line per 1000 inhabitants in
the micro-regions of county-seats (Kecskemét, Békéscsaba, Szeged) these are the is
the most supplied areas in the region, together with the smaller regional centres of
higher education, Baja and Szarvas. Mezıkovácsháza, Kistelek and Mórahalom
(163!) can be reckon among the laggards according to their fixed lines.6 The inside
territorial inequalities, which were lessening gradually in the 1990s (the scale of
development of the most slightly supplied settlements and micro regions were
significantly higher exceeded the development rate of the towns and the urbanized
areas) started to increase again after 2000 due to the population incomes, partly due
to the competition of the mobile telecommunication.
6In this respect the penetration rate of fix-line phones of Kiskunmajsa, Szeghalom, Sarkad and Makó
areas are similar to the above mentioned ones, under or around 200 subscribers per 1000 inhabitants
at the end of 2005.
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
The changing of the number of ISDN fixed lines indicates a certain activity,
suspectibility towards the novelties and adaptivity willingness between 1998 and
2003. The process is duplex, because first a subscription package should appear on
the side of the service company, which makes attractive the new product for the
consumer, on the other hand, the subscriber should decide whether the offered
service and its subscription price is managable, and it is worth for him. In case of
Csongrád and Békés county it appears that a significant phase delay is manifested
during the introduction, since while at the end of 1998 70,000 ISDN line existed
nationally, in the mentioned two counties there were 61(!) altogether (Table 3).
Table 3
Number of ISDN-channels in the region
Year
Bács-Kiskun
Békés
Csongrád
Dél-Alföld
Hungary
1998
1,286
61
0
1,347
69,145
1999
2,938
224
161
3,323
113,889
2000
8,912
1,820
3,772
14,504
322,176
2001
13,506
3,440
8,498
25,444
487,116
2002
16,438
4,606
11,727
32,771
574,874
2003
17,462
5,288
12,810
35,560
599,868
2004
17,624
5,340
12,500
35,464
593,878
2005
17,630
5,324
12,754
35,708
593,030
2006
17,664
5,552
9,704
32,920
585,330
No./1000 person, 2005
32.78
13.80
30.11
26.50
58.85
2005/2000
197.80
292.50
338.10
246.20
184.10
Source: KSH, Regional Statistical Yearbooks.
The number of the ISDN channels grew to its ninefold between 1998 and 2003,
nationally it still grew with 85%7 in comparison with 2000. From the service
companies of the region the Emitel and the Matáv of that time marketed the service
relatively quickly, since at the end of 1998 they have drummed up almost 1300
subscribers in Bács-Kiskun county while in the other two counties the sale of the
ISDN lines occured the end of 1998 and in the middle of 1999. After 4 years there
were 17,500 subscribers in Bács-Kiskun, 12,800 in Csongrád, but only 5,300 in
Békés county.8 Csongrád could show a significant (nationally the most vigorous)
dynamic in spite of the late start, and the specific index (number of ISDN lines per
7However, only 34,000 of Internet subscribers are kept on file among the 585,000 ISDN-lines owners.
8The loosing innovativity of ISDN could be measured by the number of lines provided, which were
stagnating not just national, but also on county level, as well. The high rate reduction of ISDN-
channels begun in 2006–2007, when ADSL service covered appr. 90% of the whole population and
offered faster, cheaper and less difficult connection possibility to Internet.
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
1000 inhabitants) approximated even Bács-Kiskun county, the leader of the region.
Although Bács-Kiskun is the 15th, Csongrád is the 16th, while Békés is the 19th in
the order of rank among the counties (including the capital), and they get in the
group with Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok, Nógrád and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg in 2005.
In case of the top-ranking counties almost double ISDN density emerged at the end
of 2003, which indicates the backwardness of Dél-Alföld in this segment of
development. This is the explicit indication of the fact, that the subscription
packages, which were offered in this region could generate a quite restricted
demand. Although the accomplishment of the region is not bad according to the
dynamical data, it reached the last rank in the field of specific state of supply, and
the specific state of Békés is lower than the before last Nógrád county with 40%.
In Hungary the xDSL9 service, which uses the fixed-line telecommunication
network, was started in 2000. After the first two years’ quasi failure, which based
on a defective pricing and defective survey covering a minimal market segment,
the growth in the number of subscribers and the technical preparation of the areas
suitable for the reception of the service begun with a larger impulse after 2003.
Nationally there are reliable data about the tendency of the number of the
subscribers only from the January of 2005, but the increase of the number of the
subscribers can be followed transmissionably from 2003. At the end of the first
year it may be estimated 32,000, at the end of 2003 it is 115,000, at the end of 2004
it is 235,000, in 2005 413,000, in 2006 613,000 and in 2007 750,000. While the
service companies offer not only more and more favourable conditions in the field
of subscription constructions, but they increase periodically the access bandwidth,
which makes the downloading and uploading conditions more favourable. We do
not discuss the relations with the Internet in detail, in this part we would like to
concentrate on the spatial characteristics of the process.10
While in case of the timing, the start of the ISDN-service the companies of the
region did not pass the examination well, in connection with the ADSL they did
not commit any mistake. Only the putting up for sale of the Hungarotel’s first
package showed some delay, but it was the result of the unpreparedness of the
market and the divergent focus of the company’s development strategy. At the end
of 2003 Dél-Alföld was the most covered region beside or after Közép-
Magyarország (Central Hungary, the region around the capital city Budapest).
(Figure 1) Region, particularly through the quick connection of the settlements in
Bács-Kiskun county. At the end of 2003 the ADSL service was available in
Csongrád in the towns with population over 25,000, in Békés in centres where
there are more than 10,000 inhabitants, while in Bács-Kiskun, in T-Com district 10
9The service is not adapted for conventional phone calls, but it is suitable for access of broadband
Internet.
10Among the 750,000 connected ADSL lines 739,000 Internet subscribers were registered by the KSH
(Central Statistical Office of Hungary) in 2007.
10
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
settlements, in Emitel districts already 42 settlements had the possibility to connect
the ADSL with a relatively tolerable price level.
Figure 1
ADSL accessibility in Dél-Alföld (Oct. 2003)
Source: Edited by the authors.
As a result of the quick start, the ADSL service was theoretically available
through the fixed-lines for the 90% of the population at the end of 2004. From that
time the increase of the market segment is basically not a technical but an
economic question. After one year Emitel and Invitel provided nearly total access
(the first had 7, the second had 8 not covered settlements), in case of T-Com 12,
and in Hungarotel area 27 settlements were waiting for connection.11 In case of the
previous company we could see a contiguous unprovided zone from Izsák to the
south boundary of the county, at the latter besides the uncovered settlements in
North- and South-Békés, and a low-adaptivity axis runs between Murony and
Örménykút in parallel with the main traffic axis of the county (road No. 44). This
phenomena was a surprise, because the main transport axis of the county showed a
higher level of innovativity in other economic indecees. The 2006 year’s situation
showed an almost covered region, only 5 small villages (mainly under 500
11Respectively in most cases the service companies were technically prepared for the introduction of
the new service, but there were not enough subscription intention for the beginning of the work.
11
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
inhabitants) existed without ADSL conncetion (Figure 2). The number of
subscribers were growing fast in the last 3 years, from 25 th.s in 2004 up to 77.5
th.s in 2006. The overall rate of connected people increased over 5.6%, while the
national average grew up to 8.2% (without Budapest it was around 6.5%). The rate
of growth is the same of national level, but a bit lagging behind the countryside.
Figure 2
ADSL accessibility in Dél-Alföld (Aug. 2005)
Source: Edited by the authors.
Csongrád county had the best position in the region. All settlements had the
possibility to use broadband channel to connect Internet. The number of
subscribers were over 33,000, the penetration rate was 20% higher the countryside
average, and just under the national index. The innovative pole of the county was
Szeged (the centre of the region) with a wide active suburban zone around it. The
towns of the county showed a significant activity rate, even the smaller ones.
In Bács-Kiskun county the number of villages without broadband infrastructure
counts 3 (2% of settlements, 0,5% of total population). The number of ADSL
subscribers over 27,000, but the penetration rate was under the national,
countryside and regional average, too. The forming agglomeration around
Kecskemét (county-seat with over 100 th. Inhabitants) involved a more active zone
around the city and along the main road No. 44. to eastwards. The secondary pole
of the county Baja and 3 surrounding villages formed a smaller active zone in the
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
South-western part of Bács-Kiskun. The smaller centres showed a moderate level
of using new type of ICTs, partly because of their social structure (goes back to
historical roots, a special way of development so called ‘oppidum’, market towns),
and the recent situation of local economies. In Bács-Kiskun there were small isles
of passivity in using ADSL, mainly in the border zones of the county.
Békés, in general, showed a similar picture comparing Bács-Kiskun. There were
two uncovered settlements (2.5% of settlements, 1.4% of total population). The
number of ADSL users close to 17,000, the penetration rate just under of the
previous county. The closer look suggest, that Békés had more serious problems
with adaptivity of new ICTs. The four major centres of the county (Békéscsaba –
the county-seat, Gyula, Orosháza, Szarvas) are the only poles of activity, with a
potential zone along the main road No. 44. There are wide zones of missing
activity in the South zone of the county and covering almost the whole area of
North and Northeast subregions. We were hardly point out any suburban way of
development, any effect of larger poles to their ‘hinterland’. The spatial
distribution of ADSL users is highly concentrated in the region. One-fourth of the
subscribers settled in Szeged, 42% in the three conty-seats and 57% in the medium-
and larger towns (7 of them with Baja, Gyula, Hódmezıvásárhely, and Szentes). In
all three counties we can paint the similar picture, with an extreme concentration
rate in Csongrád, where Szeged covers the 58% of the market alone, and the major
3 poles’ share is over 75%.
The spatial structure of ADSL service operators (there are 267 of them
altogether in Hungary at the end of 2005) showed an early phase of spread in the
Region. The smaller concentrations could be seen in county-towns, particularly in
Szeged, where 8 of them situated at that time (no more than 3 ADSL providers
settled in other larger towns), where the larger group of users located (Figure 3).
Although the network intelligence increased considerably (until the end of 2002
basically the proportion of the digitalized centres increased to 100%), it could not
stop the decrease of main lines. In this situation the fact is important, that the
concession areas, which had changed owners during 1994–1996 (and the zone
which had remained in the ownership of Matáv – now T-Com) had to overcome
some intensive network and extensive subscriber connection tasks. Since the
companies covered the expenses of the development phase from loan, the
telephone tariffs, which stuck in a high level, were intended for the production of
that. By the time they more or less managed to stabilize the financial background
(and complete the developments establishing the introduction of ISDN and xDSL)
they had to face with external rivals on the earlier sheltered market in consequence
of the change of the statutory background (and the end of the originally ensured
concession period).
Even regional data were not available, it is well seen that nowadays the
significant part of the fixed-line calls is approximately 6–7.5%, but almost the third
of the total call time is already concentrated on this. The breakthrough of the VoIP
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Discussion Papers, No. 64.
calls is waited for, temporarily considering the number of the calls and the call
time, its share is measurable with fractional percentage in contrast with the trends
in West-Europe.
Figure 3
xDSL service providers in Dél-Alföld, 2005
Source: Edited by the authors.
Meanwhile the passed change of ownership (Invitel, Hungarotel), the
acquisitions (eg. the purchase of PanTel Corp.) or the transformation of the profile
of the company (T-Com) only temporally held back the tune of the changes.
Nevertheless the direction of the transformation is unambigous: They have to
concentrate on the maintenance of entrepreneurial clients besides the moderate
activity on the public market, they have to increase the rate of the profitable data
communication in quick tune in the income structure, and prepare for the
introduction of the VoIP, and the phone cal possibility through the Internet.
Surprisingly the number portability did not take a mass shape, nationally also the
business partners moved towards the more favourable constructions (according to
the NHH 11000), while only the fragment of the individual clients grasped the
opportunity (2100 during 2004). The concession companies are the losing side of
the number portability, while the winners are the alternative telecommunication
service companies.
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1.2 The Mobile-Market in the Region
The beginning of the mobile phone use goes back to 1991–1992, when the first
(isolated) zones of the NMT system (Nordic Mobile Telecommunication, using the
450 MHz brandwidth) service appeared in the cities, later along the main roads,
these became a spatially more and more contiguous network. Although the
nationally covered network of the NMT was completed only at the end of 1996, by
this time the carrier of the development were the GSM service companies, which
entered to market in 1994. The WESTEL (now T-Mobile) nationally came by
leading role considering the number of the subscribers by its quicker network-
construction strategy and the introduced trade-name, which position has been kept
since that time. During 1999–2000, the networks became being able to give even
nationally total coverage, but meanwhile a new competitor entered the market. In
relation to the UMTS tender three winners could start the service, thus the two
actors servicing in the GSM network was completed with the VRAM
Magyarország Ltd., of which the largest mobile telecommunication company in the
world, the Vodafone stood behind. The Vodafone announced the completion of the
entire network at the end of 2003, so since that time (theoretically) there is total
freedom everywhere in the choice of service company for the population of the
region.
At present the national introduction of the 3G services means the challenge for
the mobile-telephony. In relation to this it is worth to consider that what kind of
technological leaps existed, and these leaps offers what sort of teaching for the
current developments. After the basic GSM service, which is also called 2G, the
WAP was the first attempt to reach breakthrough in the field of mobile data
communication. Although the band rate was behind the prevealent modem-
connection, even then, by the means of the vigorous marketing masses tried the
service and soon got disappointed in it. This fiasco retarded with at least one year
the national introduction of the new technologies and the adaptation impulse.
The GPRS possibly considered as 2,5G is able to run at least e-mail and basic-
level browser, could obtain 60 Kbit/s- the one side, but it signs the direction of
accomplishment of the newer technological leap towards the service companies.
This subscriber mass covered the 15% of the total mobile society, according to this
the start of the EDGE services was a real step on the side of the two ‘traditional’
service companies.
The bandwidth of the EDGE is roughly amount to the ISDN's, which makes
possible the substantial download and upload, although the move of the media-files
is hopeless. According to the 2003 year development conceptions, the T-Mobile
took charge of the establishmenst of the networks in the medium-sized towns,
populated over 25,000, besides the county towns and three touristic towns on the
shore of Lake Balaton until the end of the year, from which the networks of the
capital and the regional centers (Szeged from the Dél-Alföld) will have operated in
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May 2005. The Pannon wants to start the service in towns populated over 100,000
as a first step, which would be followed by the shore of Lake Balaton during the
summer, then 40 middle-sized towns until the end of the year. In case of Dél-
Alföld, the town structure is quite favourable, since besides the four county-towns12
there are further six smaller towns (Baja, Kiskunfélegyháza, Kiskunhalas, Szentes,
Gyula, Orosháza), which had been the anticipated target area of the second wave of
network building. By means of this the service became available for the 40% of
Bács-Kiskun, 60% of Csongrád, one-third of Békés county’s population. Such a
high levelled coverage is expected only in Közép-Magyarország Region until the
end of that year. In September 2007 the EDGE network – offering 256 Kbit/s
download speed for mobile data communication – is available for 95% of the
whole population in Hungary in the Pannon GSM network, covering appr. 85% of
the area of Hungary. The provided share of population 80% in the case of T-
Mobile and far less in Vodafone network.
The survey of the development steps is also informative because the building of
the 3G networks are and will realized through similar steps, using the experiences
acquired in relation to the introduction of pervious network building phases.13 The
settlement and the town-structure of Dél-Alföld, as well as the geographic situation
(missing hills and mountains) favour the establishment of EDGE and 3G networks
because the rate of the number of the towns populated over 20–30,000 and the
population exceeded the national rate. The EDGE, GPRS and WAP services are
available from almost the entire territory of the region as the possibility of data
transmission, although its speed hardly meets the requirements of the subscribers.
The large technical breakthrough in the field of mobile-telephony in 2003 was
the MMS, since in the first quarter barely 40,000, while, in the last one million
MMS were sent by the subscribers (until the end of 2004 it increased to 3 million).
In 2004 the mass quality of the GPRS was outstanding because while at the end of
2004 only 170,000 subscribers used it, after one year there were 1,26 million users,
which means sevenfold user scope during a short time. In 2006 about one-third of
12The category of county-towns covered the group of larger centres with more than 50,000
inhabitants. Including the capital city there are 23 of them in Hungary and four in the Dél-Alföld
region.
13The three 3G providers offers a highly developed network for broadband mobile communication in
Budapest and the agglomeration zone. Vodafone has a time-gap comparing the other companies,
this provider finished its 3G network in regional centres (6 of them excluding Budapest), while the
competitors offers their service at least 40–50 more smaller towns in the countryside and widening
the covered areas in the larger touristic areas (Lake Balaton, Dunakanyar, Lake Velencei etc.). The
speed of data transmission in increasing, in the first phase they offer 386 Kbit/s download and 128
Kbit/sec upload speed. In 2007 the most developed networks offer a 5 Mbit/s download and 1
Mbit/s upload bandwidth, just as fast as the ADSL and CableTV network are.
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Discussion Papers, No. 64.
subscribers used GPRS or EDGE data communication possibilities, but only
200,000 had such kind of equipment were suitable for 3G technology.14
The rate of mobile penetration exceeded the rate detected in case of the fixed-
line number portability (roughly 30,000 during 2004) but comparing it with the
number of the subscribers and the augmentation registrated during the years, it is
well seen that this possibility did not rearranged the markets drastically.
The mobile-telephony is a success-sector of the national ICT (info-
communication technologies) sector, particularly according to the tendency of the
number of the subscribers. They managed to exceed million even in March 1999,
thereafter the number of the subscribers increased with one million in every 9th
month in average until the reach of the 7 million limit. From this time, the tendency
of the number of the mobile subscribers indicates the characteristics of saturation
and the penetration takes shape according to the ‘S-curve’. They needed one year
for the reach of the 8 million limit, 16 months for the 9 million and 19 month for
the 10 million. The final level of the saturation now is not determinable
unanimously since in the Scandinavian countries, which are leading on the field of
development, the proportion of mobile telephones is above 130% per 100
inhabitants. In Hungary the recent penetration rate 103.4% (August, 2007).
The success of mobile-telephony is attributable to the appearance of the supply
accomodating to the requirements of subscribers, and the increase of the pretension
towards mobile telecommunication and the computer science since we can use our
laptop computer by the help of infrared connection without conventional outlet, at
most with the joint of a mobile phone. The establishment of WiFi networks is
spreading in Hungary too, although it is concentrated on significantly roofed places
(airports, hypermarkets, coffee bars, confectioneries of pedestrian precincts etc.) in
the present phase of development.15 With this the future developmental way shows
the development of the mobile-computer technology.
Relating to the regional distribution of mobile phones, only the survey of the
KSH (a national representative questionnaire covering 15,000 households) offers
essential proof, because the companies do not give any regional information. After
that, we can see that the term between 1996 and 1998 was the time of slow growth,
while the period of 1999–2003 was the time of sudden extension, but it was the
period of the quick increase, later the similarly quick lessening of regional disparity
14The number of wireless Internet subscribers began to increase in 2004. At the end of 2003, there
were appr. 24,000 of them, one year later it increased to 74,000, and it was doubled to the end of
2006. In 2007 the total number of this type of Internet users went up to 430,000. To say the truth, a
certain minority of this group used the microwave broadband service of AM-Mikro Co. in the
Budapest agglomeration area.
15The first plan for covering the whole CBD of Budapest with WiFi technology has been established
in 2007. The project will probably end in 2010. However, investigation showed a large number of
WiFi points along certain routes in the center of the capital city. The very last one pointed out more
than 1500 of them along a major road of the city.
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Discussion Papers, No. 64.
at the same time. In general the region was reckond into the backward group, in
2001–2002 it was the worst situation (Table 4).
However, in 2003 it approximates the national average thus it got away from
the last rank and essentially it was on the same level with Közép-Magyarország,
Dél-Dunánúl, Észak-Dunántúl and Észak-Alföld. The number of mobile telephones
might be 120 per 100 households. After two years the average number of mobile
phones (per 100 households) increased almost 160 in average and the differences
among regions diminished (in Dél-Alföld the index was 153).
Table 4
Number of mobile phones per 100 households by region
Region
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Közép-Magyarország
4
6
10
16
29
55
87
124
136
142
159
Budapest
5
6
12
17
34
63
94
124
133
Közép-Dunántúl
3
5
7
15
35
64
99
142
145
146
171
Nyugat-Dunántúl
3
4
6
11
22
46
85
130
144
148
167
Dél-Dunántúl
2
4
7
12
25
50
78
122
126
137
155
Észak-Magyarország
1
2
3
7
19
49
69
111
120
129
144
Észak-Alföld
2
4
5
11
28
50
88
122
138
146
158
Dél-Alföld
2
4
5
14
25
43
77
120
125
134
153
Hungary
3
4
7
13
27
52
84
124
134
140
158
Source: KSH, Regional Statistical Yearbooks.
1.3 Alternative Technologies
The wireless technologies have a basic characteristic: at least one of the network’s
segments use electromagnetic waves for data sending and receiving instead of
conventional fixed access. The best known types of it are the WLAN – Wireless
Local Area Network – and the RLAN – Radio Local Area Network – technologies.
They are suitable for the extension of the already existing broadband access on the
so-called „last 100 metres” on the level of the actual technological development.
Sharing connection can be within a house or office among more computers or the
joint technology of rural communities, townships. Among these technologies the
spreading of the so-called WiFi was the quickest in Hungary and internationally
too, because the 2.4 GHz frequency range they used was gratuitously accessible. (It
is illustrative that in the 3,5 GHz band sold by auction in 2002, public broadband
service did not appear till now if we disregard an invitation from Veszprém, this
freqency range is dominated by business applications.) The great advantage of it is
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that it can be operated lucratively with even 20 subscribers because of the moderate
infrastructural requirement. The band rate of WiFi is approximately 10 Mbit/sec,
but at most 500 metres distance is bridgable by this technology. The basic obstacle
of the more intensive spreading and the covering of bigger areas that the available
bandwidth decreases in inverse ratio with the increase of the number of users. The
occuring of disturbance in the system (eg. Mobile phones, microwave-owens) and
the reflections in connection with access and data defending.
Thus in 2003 the Westel and the Pannon GSM, in 2004 the Vodafone started to
provide the service, still with limited coverage (eg. Ferihegy Airport), the MATÁV
also started a service coverage, a public Internet access named EasyNet Plusz. In
Gyır experimentative gratuitous public broadband Internet access providing started
in 2003. In Hungary the microwave access provides Internet access for 330,000
subscribers (20% of the total number), its significant part is handled on the AM-
Micro network in the suburban zone of the capital.
The introduction of the data communication with optical fibre means further
possibilities. The band rate of the network is essentially limited by terminal
equipments. The data communication capacity exceeds 10 Mbit/sec on the present
technology level, but it is significantly increasable by the help of a special
development (wave multiplexing). The disadvantage of the technology is the high
establishment expense, although they mostly seem high among the
telecommunication infrastructural elements, comparing with the „basic
infrastructure” elements (as road, water, sewage systems, culvert, electricity, gas)
the establishment costs amount to its fragments. Nowadays in general the optical
fibres are used in backbone networks, excluding the big business partners, the
optical rings were established in the cities for contacting them.
The present application of Ethernet networks is confined to assuring access
within a building or building complex. This application area may look forward to
further increase (integrating assurance of talk, Internet and cable TV) as a result of
the continuous subdivision building. The establishment of the so-called ‘long-
range’ Ethernet connection now is possible besides ADSL, for 1,5 kilometres
round of the telephone exchanges or affiliated stages.
The PLC technology, namely broadband power line communication is
theoretically realizable on a power network, according to the current experiments,
1–4 Mbit/s bandwidth would be insurable, but no national company has started the
introduction of commercial service so far, and successful use of technology is
scarcely seen also in the developed world (Reykjavik). The fundamental problem is
the bridging of transformers working in the network but the recabling of the
affected homes might become necessary, since the high-speed signs can be
transmittable within a limited distance on the present networks. The bypass of the
disturbing effect of radio, TV, telephone means further problems. According to
this, the technology may come into question as a makeshift in the field of the
connection of rural areas.
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The satellite data transfer possibility may play a role primarily in the serving of
slightly supplied areas with low density of population. The high rent of the
necessary infrastructure (transpoder) and the high expense of duplexity are
disadvantegous. The bandwidth may considerably narrow under adverse weather
conditions. Its disadvantage that as a result of the detention of sign transmission,
the use of the real-time services is not possible. In this segment we cannot count on
mass demand under the national conditions, while in the short run it may obtain an
important role in the bridging the period until the establishment of the fixed
network.
On the way towards the broadband mobile access the 3G telephones and the
establishment and start of the networks mean the first breakthrough, its basis is the
UMTS system. In case of a fixed end the band rate is 2 Mbit/s, on foot it is 386
Kbit/s, by car the access is 114 Kbit/s. By means of the development of UMTS
based technology the band rate would be increasable up to 10 Mbit/s, which may
be a serious competitor of copper based networks. By this means the aspiration
may be realized, that the Internet service separate from the stable terminal
equipment.
The tests made with the 4G mobile system are continuing in the Far-East (Japan
,Taiwan, South-Korea, Singapure, Hongkong) so far but the present results show us
a real breakthrough. In case of end in motion the 40 Mbit/s band speed is available
too. In spite of this technological bravura the mass spreading of 4G mobile systems
is slightly probable in the next 10 years since the return of the 3G networks built,
quite heavy costs must be assured.
2004 was the year of the breakthrough of 3G systems for Europe. The owners of
the service concessions, sold at the beginning of the decade and went for a price
out of sight in certain countries, produced the purchase price on the one hand, on
the other hand they built up their systems covering the cities and the main railway
and road traffic system. According to our present knowledge the GSM technology
will not become redundant for a while, because for some length of time we cannot
reckon the building up of the UMTS systems providing complete coverage in any
country, and if the users reach the limits of the 3G-covered area, the GSM (EDGE)
system takes over the service, as we could see the example in case of the start of
the new Spanish system. Since the UMTS system practically will be able to
provide an Internet connection quantitatively corresponding to ADSL, the
competition of the two technologies is prognosticative.
Technically already tested, but widely not introduced possibilities are missing
from the alternative technologies as the data communication possibility through the
electrical network, which may made available the access to data transmission
networks to the 96-97% of the population. We did not discussed in details VoIP
possibilities and the AM-Mikro networks which makes possible the regional data
communication. Although they signify a real alternative oppose the now
dominating communication forms, we does not feel that their potential space
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organizing effect has not penetrating force, because of this they fell in to the
background in the analysis. By means of the development of the technology other
technical solutions, networks may appear. The previously mentioned electricity-
energetic networks through which telecommunication signs could be transmissed
(PLC technology) may offer new possibilities and they already examined the
telecommunicational possibilities of VSAT equipment, orbiting on a smaller
height. But we surely cannot reckon on their introduction and mass application in
the next 2–3 years.16
The positive effect of the competing ‘last mile’ technologies and the
telecommunication’s liberalization will be perceptible for the great partners in the
first round, but we consider that because of the influence of the technological
development, the developments continuing in more directions, and the market
competition, favourable changes may occur for the individual consumers within a
few years.17 Larger question that the regional level, which gets more and more
tangible role in the articulation of the local interests, the coordination and the
distribution of sources, whether how it can accomodate to the changing conditions.
Whether, it will find the most advantageous technology or the optimal combination
of the competing technologies to more efficiently fulfill its space organizing
integrating role? Whether, it become possible, at least on regional level, that as a
step towards the direct democracy the arbitrators could work out a solid stand-point
in more questions with the knowledge of the population's opinion and execute it on
the basis of the authorization of the majority? Whether, it is possible to make the
public administration close to people at least on local but on regional level? Is it
possible to frame the present structure of power into service provider with the help
of the new technologies? Whether, the spread of the new technologies increase the
equal opportunity? Whether, it open a social gap – besides the already existing
ones – which facilitate the development of a dual society along the dimension of
information illiteracy?
The development of the national VSAT sector (Very small appertuate terminal)
is outstanding in the field of microwave data transmission. In the middle of the
1990s in Hungary already four rivalling companies served more than 1000
terminals and the stage of their activities also extended to a part of Middle-East-
Europe. The easy settling, the operation functioning without fixed network and the
relatively moderate expenses of the operation determine the quick success of
VSAT service. The utility of the system was increased by the fact that one HUB
station is able to set up and keep point-multipoint contact with many thousands
16The Novacom Telecommnication Ltd. sorked out the technology of which can forward the
telecommunication signs to the households through the common electronic network, and the first
phase of development being held in Budapest (on ELMŐ’s network).
17In some cases – as we could see in 2007 – the international policy makers (e.g. the EU Commission)
were able to modify the behaviour of service providers and strengthen the competition among them,
as it happened in roaming tariffs and planning in SMS tariffs abroad.
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terminals. The time sharing, time-division multiplex access (TDMA) technology
make possible the profitable operation of the system.
According to the above, it is not accidental that the significant part of the
multipremises companies decided that they use the satellite data communication
possibility to handle the data transmission within the company. Its advantage is that
the centre is able to follow the activities in the premises, it is able to intervene
immediately if the course of affairs requires it. The activity area of the five
determinant companies of the sector becomes Europe horizontal, since their settled
end-points were findable from London to Moscow on the millenium. From the
circle of the companies mentioned by the service companies as reference, it was
discovered that the target sectors and the target groups widened comparing with the
early years. Besides the bank and insurance sphere the retail and wholesale trade,
the transmission of stock exchange information, the service of state administration,
and the management of energetic systems play more and more important role, but
transport companies, national production corporate enterprises also appear in their
sphere of interest (Pick, Villeroy&Boch, Medikémia, MOL), they have partners in
the domain of building industry, informatics, computer science, office technology
and information service sphere too.
The systems are evolved according to the requirements of the customer
conforming to three main types:
− unidirectional data casting system: news agency applications, stock exchange
information, dissemination of weather forecast, remote maintenance of
softwares etc.
− data loggers: report of store of sales locations, compiling of retail return,
reception of data remote detectors (power supply, pipelines, railroad and
seismic stations, meteorological stations, flood-prevention)
− duplex systems: bank applications, mechanical transactions (payment with
debit card, POS-terminals, ATM), on-line stock exchange affairs, insurance
affairs, handling of registrations (travel agencies, hotels, transport services,
handling of internal data communication of companies, commercial
networks, store chains, state administration, public health)
The national VSAT service would also offer a possibility that it become the
technical frame of data communication, not only within national compasses but
within the range of regional units and among the actors of regional development,
since the network security exceed 99.5% and the bandwidth of transmission (2
Mbit/sec is also suit the institutional requirements.
The VSAT service is a special type of microwave services, which is able to
cover continent-sized areas due to the used technology. Because of the high price
of the service and the relatively narow circle of Hungarian users, this data
transmission solution will satisfy primarily special (high-speed electronic data-
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exchange, credit card verification, reservation systems, disaster recovery) and not
mass requirements in the Hungarian telecommunication.
The Internet telephony is emphasizable among the competitors of conventional
telecommunication, which gives the 20–35% of the total return, according the
report of NHH (National Communication Institution), which decisively develops
by the help of the use of fixed-line services. At the same time the rate of VoIP calls
exceeded 0.15% only in 2004,18 which means a significant backwardness compared
with West-Europe. Although the UPC already started the VoIP service on the
cable-network (that time they obtained 20,000 subscribers). Among the
competitors the T-Kábel started the service in June 2005, while the FiberNet
realised the start of test operation in August 2005. Given the knowledge that 54%
of the national households are connected to a sort of cable-TV network (more than
half of them belong to one of the above 3 service companies), the VoIP
telecommunication may be a real competitor of the conventional fixed-lines.
1.4 The Development of CableTV Networks
One of the possible technical solution of the access of information society’s
services is the cable networks’ utilization for duplex broadband data transmission.
Although in Hungary more than the half of the households connected to one of the
service companies’network (Figure 4), at the end of 2005 only a minority of them
was suitable for duplex data transmission in spite of the fact, that the obligation of
the completion of required investments was stated by law.19 A certain group of
service providers was not able to finance it with its low capital value and return,
thus the completion of the needed works may be delayed for years. The cable TV
market of Hungary is oligopoly-like with three major companies (UPC, which is
the service provider of Monor telecommunication zone too, T-Kábel, the affiliated
firm specialized to the cable-network services of the largest fix phone provider and
FiberNet).
Until the millenium the quantitative increase of the network was the most
important aim of the service companies, firstly decisively by means of buildings,
later by acquisitions. As a secondary aim, the locking in the headway of the other
big service providers was in the forefront of the strategy as a result to fit, the
number of providable households was limited, which (and the legal dispute moving
in parallel with it) held back the spread of UPC. In 2004 the increase of the limit of
the fixed supply highlighted again both the widening of the existing network
capacity in the supplied settlements and the spread at the expense of the
18We have no more recent data of this area!
19The CableTV network owners had to rearrange the connection configuration of the cables to make
them fit for duplex broadband data transmission not later than the end of 2003.
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independent small service providers. Legally the big service providers and the
actors, which operating medium-sized networks (in small towns), started the
modernization of networks (establishment of a ‘point-multipoint configuration’,
opening up the technical possibility of duplex data transmission), in which the UPC
Monor district, and its developments were the guiders. At the end of 2003
according to the estimate theoretically the two-thirds of network capacity might
become suitable for data communication, which value had increased to 70–75% at
the end of 2005. In reality the Internet service started only on its smaller section,
where the solvent demand justified it. The number of subscribers showed a sudden
increase (18,000) compared with the end of 2001,20 and it means about a quarter of
households supplied with Internet via cable TV.
Figure 4
Share of Cable-TV connected households by countries, 2002
Share of Cable-TV connected households by countries, 2002
Belgium
95
Netherlands
94,5
Switzerland
84
USA
72
Canada
66
Sveden
63
Denmark
60
Romania
58
Germany
56
Hungary
52
Ireland
49
Norway
49
C-TV %
Finland
45,4
Portugal
36,2
Poland
34
Austria
33,4
Czech Rep.
27,8
Japan
24,2
France
15,1
UK
14,5
Australia
12,1
Spain
4
Italy
1
Greece
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
%
Source: EUROSTAT, 2005.
2032,000 in 2002, 77,000 in 2003, 136,000 in 2004, 212,000 in 2005, 375,000 in 2006 and 558,000 in
2007. The share of supplied clients grew up from 5% (2001) to 30% in the whole mass of Internet
users, mainly because of the prices of combined (cable TV and Internet) packages.
24
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
In this category there are strong reserves in the field of the increase of the
number of subscribers. Hungary is in a relatively favourable situation considering
the state of supply of cable TV (KTV) compared with the OECD countries and
Europe. Slightly more than the half of the housing stock has connection with the
network of approximately 400 service companies. As the result of the reduction of
the preceding market delimitation21 three conventionally and one specially situated
service companies22 (UPC, T-Kábel, FiberNet and Antenna Mikro) cover the half
of the market.
We have information about the state of supply since 1994, from which the
1997–2005 years seem more or less reliable and at least roughly comparable. It is a
result of the fact, that the service circle, which is obligated to supply data for the
KSH changes annually (sometimes with significant differences), sometimes they
return only partly filled data sheets, which provides free scope for estimate.23
Entirely it is true that the number of connected households increased to more than
the one-and-half-fold since 1997. The increment – namely the quantitative spread
of networks – terminated approximately in the millenium. From that time the task
of service companies was the increase of network intelligence, the establishment of
‘point-multipoint configuration’ and the creation of technical background of duplex
data transmission.
The characteristic feature of county-sowed information of KSH is that the
consecutive years are restrictedly comparable because the circle of service
companies obligated to report was changing by one-two-year periods. But the
information was suitable for the appraisal of the rate of supply compared one with
the other.
In the counties of Dél-Alföld the rate of households connected to network falls
behind the national average at the end of 2006 (Table 5). Csongrád moved in the
level of national index (204 connected households per 1000 inhabitants, while the
national average is 201), although here the slack development rate observable
between 1997–2003 resulted the loose of former favourable position. In Békés the
21While proceedingly the one-sixth of the market could be covered by on provider without the affront
of the market competition, according to the 2004 regulation the limit was one-third of the market.
The determination of the potential market got affirmation, the whole housing stock have been
included to the calculation, not just the covered settlements. In the light of this, while the growth of
UPC had to be stopped artifically before 2003, because the number of subscribers nearing 700,000
got unsafely close to the one-sixth limit, now the limitation went up to 1.4 million households. The
Hungarian Government, forced by the EU Commission, obliged to cancel any limits of market
share of companies in this area before 2010.
22Although the Antenna-Mikro does not supply through classical cable-network, the nature of its
activity may be connectable with this service.
23The uncertainty is signed by the fact that in several counties (Zala, Fejér, Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg)
the penetration indicators of 1995 are higher than the similar indicator of 2005, in case of Baranya,
Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén and Heves the rate of supply of 2000 is the highest measured value, in case
of Gyır-Moson-Sopron it is the indicator of 2002.
25
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
rate of coverage falls behind with 20% of the national level, but the rate of growth
was much quicker, thus the rate of backwardness significantly decreased. The gap
between the local and national level similarly shrinked in case of Bács-Kiskun, so
the relative rate of supply of the county could increase from 40% to 82% of the
national level. The penetration rate of Csongrád county is comparable with the rate
of supply of Fejér, Somogy and Tolna, the coverage of Békés and Bács-Kiskun
corresponded to the rate of supply of Hajdú-Bihar, Pest and Nógrád, and bit higher
than the index of Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok. The rate of increase in the last decade in
Csongrád and Bács-Kiskun seemed quite hard, instead of the unfavourable
characteristics of settlement network (e.g. the high rate of people living in lonely
farmsteads, ‘tanya’).
Table 5
Number of Cable-TV connected households per 1000 persons in the region
Year
Bács-Kiskun
Békés
Csongrád
Dél-Alföld
Hungary
1995
48
117
150
163
1996
31
107
127
127
1997
47
76
136
110
1998
103
95
143
129
1999
105
98
162
152
2000
105
109
178
161
2001
107
115
160
158
2002
106
128
176
172
2003
109
140
182
188
2004
146
149
184
159
195
2005
166
159
204
176
201
2006
162
178
208
181
210
Source: KSH, Regional Statistical Yearbooks.
At the end of 2003 the CTV system operates in 1050 settlements in Hungary,
and 102 in Dél-Alföld, which means that while nationally more than two-thirds of
settlements were waiting for the network establishment, in Dél-Alföld it was less
than 60% (Figure 5). This is an expressive information in the light of the fact that
in 2001 they still registered 70% (nationally) and 68% (regionally) rates. By the
end of 2005 10 newly connected settlements got CTV network in the region, so the
share of non-supplied settlements decreased 54%. Thus in the region the number of
supplied settlements increased spectacularly, in Bács-Kiskun with the biggest scale
(17 new), while in Békés and Csongrád the increase of coverage was more
moderate (5 and 8 new). Among the counties the coverage of Békés is the
strongest, since there almost 55% of whole settlement stock is already in
26
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
possession of established system, the rate just the same in Bács-Kiskun and in
Csongrád (42–43%). While in 2000 in Csongrád 5 (Szeged, Hódmezıvásárhely,
Zsombó, Deszk, Sándorfalva), in Békés 3 (Békéscsaba, Kondoros, Szarvas)
systems were already in possession of CTV network24 which were suitable for
Internet transmission, in Bács-Kiskun this type of network did not existed at that
time, even after two years.
Figure 5
Cable-TV local networks in Dél-Alföld (2003)
Source: Edited by the authors.
The micro-regional25 rate of supply showed much larger scattering: in
Kunszentmiklós micro-region there are 8, in Békéscsaba micro-region (shaped by
Békéscsaba and four small nearby villages) 371 connected households per 1000
inhabitants, besides this only one index-number was registrated above 250 in case
of Szeged (288), while under 50 in Kiskunhalas (15), Orosháza (25) and Móraha-
lom (46) micro-regions at the end of 2003. There are unbroken unprovided blocks
in Kiskırös region, the east-part of Bácska, on the eastern boarder of Homokhát,
ont he border of Békés and Csongrád counties, int he two micro-districts of South-
Békés and ont he north-east border of the county. By the end of 2005 significant
24In Csongrád county 53% of total population lived in that settlements, in Békés appr. 22%.
25Hungarian micro-regions means the LAU1 (former NUTS4) level of public administration and basic
actors of regional policy.
27
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
changes had been gone in the spatial structure. The rate of connected households
increased, and the group of highly active micro-regions widened. Békéscsaba,
Szeged, Gyula and Kiskunhalas were far above the national average, Szarvas and
Hódmezıvásárhely were over the countryside average. Kunszentmiklós and
Mórahalom were in the most unfavourable position, but the large uncovered areas,
we could see two years before were broken with newly connected ‘isles’. There
were 10 of 25 micro-regions where at least two-third of settlements had been
‘cabled’ and only 3 remains under one-forth CTV network by the end of 2005.
Nationally more than half of the CTV-internet market was covered by UPC, the
10% by Fibernet, 15% by T-Kábel. At the end of 2006 UPC had appr. 200,000
subscribers, 65,000 of them joined via T-Kábel networks and 40,000 via Fibernet.
The other two larger companies (EMKTV and PR-Telekom) covered 15–18,000
clients. These five major companies covered about 90% of total CTV-internet
market at that moment. The business plans of companies forcast a high rate of
increase in the number of subscribers for 2007. Although exact data are not
available about the development of the number of CTV-internet subscribers within
the region, some surveys suggest, that in the larger centres there is an increasing
popularity of this kind of service.
1.5 The State of the Informatics Market
We can draw an overall picture suitable for national comparison about the public
market segment according to the surveys of KSH. Relying upon these findings
there was PC in 41.6% of the households in Dél-Alföld, while the national average
was 47.1% at the end of 2006 (Table 6).26 The difference among regions decreased
significantly between 2003–2006, in the best equipped region the penetration was
54%, and in the worst 40%. The Northwest regions had a moderate advantage
comparing to the Eastern regions, but the difference quite lower than the
inequalities in economic indicators, or incomes. The laptops, notebooks, palmtops
covered 11% of households in Hungary and 6.2% in Dél-Alföld. This types of
ICTs are rather expensive and the advantage comes from the mobility did not count
enough in the region. The major problem was, that PCs with Internet connection
covered only one-tenth of households, while the national average was 50% higher
in 2005 (Table 7).
The rate of Internet connected households in Dél-Alföld was over 27% in 2006,
thanks to the national program Sulinet and Sulinet Plus not far from the national
average, and the favourable Northwestern regions (Table 7). The broadband
26Although the Sulinet programme (a government organised project for stimulating home PC and
home Internet use) generated substantial change in case of rate of supply of PC, given the
knowledge of partial data, it can be affirmed that the backwardness of the region barely lessened.
28
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
network was suitable only for 15.5% of the households, while the national index
counts 22%, just like the leading countryside regions in Hungary (Table 8).27
Table 6
Number of PCs per 100 households by regions
Region
1993 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Közép-Magyarország*
4
5
12
11
12
13
17
21
29
37
46
46 54.4
Budapest
13
11
14
13
15
16
20
26
33
37
49
51
Közép-Dunántúl
5
7
7
9
10
15
22
23
25
34
33
39 49.4
Nyugat-Dunántúl
8
5
9
11
11
14
15
14
19
31
33
35 49.2
Dél-Dunántúl
6
7
6
8
7
9
10
16
18
26
27
33 46.2
Észak-Magyarország
5
5
5
6
7
10
12
18
17
25
29
29 39.8
Észak-Alföld
4
4
7
7
7
10
12
15
19
27
32
34 41.1
Dél-Alföld
3
3
5
6
6
8
10
10
13
20
22
26 41.6
Hungary
7
6
8
9
9
11
14
17
21
30
35
36 47.1
*In 1993 and 1995 Pest county only.
Source: KSH, Regional Statistical Yearbooks.
Table 7
Number of PCs with Internet connection per 100 households by regions
Region
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Közép-Magyarország*
8
22
24
42.3
Budapest
11
23
27
Közép-Dunántúl
5
12
16
32.1
Nyugat-Dunántúl
3
10
13
32.2
Dél-Dunántúl
5
11
12
28.9
Észak-Magyarország
4
8
9
24.9
Észak-Alföld
5
10
11
25.4
Dél-Alföld
2
7
9
27.1
Hungary
5
6
11
14
15
32.3
*The data includes the capital city, Budapest.
Source: KSH, Regional Statistical Yearbooks.
27Budapest and Pest county (forming the Central Hungary Region) had much higher penetration rates
in every examined dimension (e.g. the share of laptops count 17%, the Internet-connected
households share over 42%, and broadband networks covered one-third of flats).
29
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Table 8
USE of ICTs in Hungarian households, 2006 (%)
Region
Mobile
Notebook, Broadband PC-users
Internet-
Buying via
phone user Palmtop
internet
user
Internet
user
user
Közép-Magyarország*
86.8
17.0
31.8
69.4
59.6
12.0
Közép-Dunántúl
87.0
9.3
22.5
59.5
47.4
6.8
Nyugat-Dunántúl
78.7
10.0
22.2
59.0
49.4
7.6
Dél-Dunántúl
86.0
10.0
18.3
56.1
47.3
9.1
Észak-Magyarország
81.9
7.0
15.6
52.0
39.7
5.8
Észak-Alföld
81.2
9.1
15.6
54.2
41.0
5.7
Dél-Alföld
85.3
6.2
15.5
53.7
42.4
6.2
Hungary
84.4
9.2
22.0
59.5
48.5
8.2
*The data includes the capital city, Budapest.
Source: A magyarországi háztartások…, 2006. KSH.
In spite of this, the expenses of informatical and communicational purpose of
the households of Dél-Alföld did not fall behind the regional average, while prior
to that (before 1998) the gulf prove much deeper.28 Although the annual spent
amount falls behind (with 13%) the Közép-Dunántúl region’s similar data, in the
examined period it occurred in more years (1998–2000, 2003) that Dél-Alföld got
in the center of the field according to its placing. It is to be remarked that the
differences among the five other regions are minimal, a kind of process of levelling
off is typical of them (Table 9).
In case of the central public administration, significant disparities appear in
more dimensions between the equipment and the use of means of the self-
governing and administrative spheres.29 Between 1998 and 2005 the computer
stock increased to its three-folds in the sphere, but barely the 35% of 224,000
computers are concentrated in the self-governments. The renewal of computer
stock is continuous, under the present rate of exchange the computers of the self-
government would go through a complete change within 6–7 years. But it is
reflecting that there are scarcely 3000 servers for 3168 self-governments (2000 in
the year of 2003), the number of workstations not used for server purposes is
barely 200. It strongly restrains the process of the optimal establishment of internal
networks (Table 10).
28Between 1998–2005 appr. 80-90% of the national average were spent on similar purposes by the
households of Dél-Alföld. The data of the capital city consecutively exceeded the national average,
thus the situation of Dél-Alföld was relatively good in the regional comparison.
29Because the structure of the database, in some cases we have no information after 2003.
30
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Table 9
Annual communication expenditures by regions (in HUF)
Region
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Közép-Magyarország
1,879
8,042
11,727
16,222
20,612
25,784
30,917
36,134
44,774
52,894
56,100
62,021
Budapest
3,727
9,477
13,198
18,033
23,222
29,485
34,276
41,036
50,893
59,619
65,400
Közép-Dunántúl
1,323
4,329
8,722
12,305
15,771
18,575
22,890
26,077
33,217
38,570
42,000
47,973
Nyugat-Dunántúl
1,847
5,553
7,988
10,560
14,222
18,240
20,668
25,280
32,864
34,836
37,200
44,858
Dél-Dunántúl
2,142
5,405
7,584
9,524
13,646
16,026
20,612
21,536
30,441
31,517
36,100
42,340
Észak-Magyarország
2,252
4,823
7,543
8,883
12,620
14,992
20,434
22,483
26,904
29,945
33,400
39,423
Észak-Alföld
1,301
4,606
5,983
8,498
12,428
14,930
19,839
22,851
28,966
29,844
34,100
39,818
Dél-Alföld
1,560
3,904
6,261
9,528
14,097
16,204
19,228
21,315
31,003
31,661
36,400
42,310
Hungary (average)
2,107
5,654
8,495
11,587
15,649
19,007
23,425
26,776
34,383
38,166
41,900
48,049
Source: KSH, Regional Statistical Yearbooks.
31
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Table 10
Computer stock of administration (1998–2005)
Year
PC
Med. capac.
Large
Together
Newly
Server PC
Non-server Server WS +
Palmtop
capacity
bought
Workstation Large capac.
1998
72,639
2,287
149
75,075
15,522
1999
90,705
2,314
287
93,306
20,681
2000
101,461
111,150
23,674
3,595
5,471
623
2001
116,318
125,573
23,379
4,114
4,361
780
2002
136,882
148,539
29,504
3,484
6,159
2,014
2003
170,304
183,106
28,611
8,782
2,026
1,994
Central admin.
119,856
130,355
19,120
7,098
1,716
1,685
Local authority
50,448
52,751
9,491
1,684
310
309
2005
211,512
223,514
31,038
5,604
1,277
3,677
1,444
Central admin.
137,319
145,931
19,443
3,427
1,079
2,857
1,249
Local author.
74,193
77,583
11,595
2,177
198
820
195
Source: A közigazgatás informatikai eszközei és információs tevékenysége, 2003 and 2005, KSH.
32
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
The rates of PC-use are a bit more favourable, at the end of 2005 there was no
computer only in the 1.6% of governments (it was 6% in 2003). The Internet access
was not yet general, there was not this type of connection in case of over 200 self-
governments (600 in 2003). Intranet or Extranet appear sporadically, but the 91.5%
of them enjoyed the benefits of e-mail (75% in 2003). Scarcely the two-third of
self-governments the employees were in possession of an own computer (50% in
2003) (Table 11). In case of the administrative sphere among the developments
requiring large investment, the establishment of Intranets was almost finished at the
end of 2003, what is more, Extranet network operated in every ninth institution.
Here the 70% of employees could work on his/her own computer.
Table 11
Use of ICTs and services in administration (2003, 2005)
Year
PC
Intranet Extranet Internet
e-mail
Open
code
software
Central admin. Institution
2003
100.0
85.8
11.5
100.0
99.5
2005
100.0
86.1
15.8
100.0
100.0
46.6
employee
2003
70.2
59.5
33.8
2005
82.8
69.7
44.9
Local author.
Institution
2003
94.0
6.8
0.7
81.2
76.8
2005
98.4
8.6
1.8
93.1
91.5
16.7
employee
2003
51.8
18.4
34.7
2005
65.0
29.0
49.1
Source: A közigazgatás informatikai eszközei és információs tevékenysége, 2003 and 2005, KSH.
The use of security tools became more common between 2003 and 2005. The
most popular forms were, firewalls and anti-virus programs. The higher levels of e-
security (security servers, data backup process in certain terms, encryption and use
of e-signature) became more common in national level institutions, but in local
level administration they are rarely used (Table 12).
Sharp disparities developed among the types of Internet connections, too (Table
13). While at the end of 2003 the most of the self-governments preferred the
modem and ISDN connection providing low bandwidth, and the joint rate of
broadband connections scarcely reached the one-eigth of all the self-governments,
in the public administration the joint share of them exceeded 28%, moreover, the
share of the outstandingly reliable leased line connections alone was present in the
two-thirds of the institutional circle.30 By the end of 2005 the broadband
30Some institutions connected the Internet in more than one ways, that’s why the overall values
exceeded 100%.
33
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
connection types (xDSL, CTV, leased line) gave the majority of Internet
connections in self-governments (51.5%) and the share of modem-users decreased
under 20%. A relatively new phenomena was the increasing use of wireless and
GPRS connections (22.1% together) and the moderating role of ISDN-channels
(27.3%). A smaller group of self governments had at least two types of Internet
connections, the larger towns used 3–4 rival technologies in parallel.
Table 12
Use of security tools in administration (2003, 2005)
Year
Sec.
Firewall Encryp-
Data
e-signa- Anti-virus
server
tion
backup
ture
program
Central admin. Institution 2003
74.0
76.8
26.3
91.8
13.5
97.0
2005
83.9
88.6
36.2
95.4
27.8
98.6
Local author.
Institution 2003
19.3
28.4
5.0
29.0
4.4
75.5
2005
25.5
62.6
7.5
30.8
4.8
89.9
Source: A közigazgatás informatikai eszközei és információs tevékenysége, 2003 and 2005, KSH.
Table 13
Types of Internet connections (2003, 2005)
Year Modem ISDN xDSL
Cable Leased Wireless LAN
GPRS Other
line
Central admin. Institution 2003
18.5
22.8
21.3
6.8
65.8
25.5
2005
14.7
17.4
27.0
7.9
55.9 11.2
31.3
7.9
6.8
Local author.
Institution 2003
37.4
61.1
8.7
4.1
4.2
5.2
2005
19.8
27.3
38.2
9.5
3.8 15.2
6.1
6.9
1.5
Source: A közigazgatás informatikai eszközei és információs tevékenysége, 2003 and 2005, KSH.
While the annual gross amount of the investments of informatics was almost the
same in the two spheres in 2003, two years later the rate of self-governments grew
up to 70% in total ICT investments (Table 14). In case of the amount converted to
the operation of the instrumental-stock and the networks 1:3.5 rate evolved to the
sphere of self-government’s disadvantage. Partly it can be attributed to the fact that
at the end of 2005 gulf-like disparity developed between the two spheres in the
field of the use of safety devices. Inside the Dél-Alföld region, the ICT investments
show a harmonic structure, very close to the county’s share in population, or active
workers (Table 15).
While the rate of the employees working with computer in self-governments
nationally increased from 61 to 70% between 1998 and 2003, in Dél-Alföld it
34
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
increased from 51.4% to 62.7%, namely at a significantly quicker pace than the
national average (Table 16). The lowest rate was signed in Békés county (56.3%),
although the pace of increase was the quickest there (almost 17%). Because of the
slower changing rate of Bács-Kiskun (almost 8%) it reached only 57.4% in 2003,
while in case of Csongrád more then the four-fifths of employees were regular PC
user during daily work. Only a fragment of the annual investment amount of
informatics get to the provinces, thus it is practical to give the share of the region
comparing to this, in addition that its rate of the regional population is
approximately 16%. Regarding the whole period we can see that the region got a
share from the development sources parallel with the rate of population, with
smaller fluctations. Within the region, suited to the population Bács-Kiskun
appropriated a bit more, while Csongrád a bit less means to informatical
development.
Table 14
ICT Investments and Expenditures (2003, 2005)
Year
Invest.
Expend.
Computer
Commu-
Internet
services
nication
services
services
Central admin.
Institution
2003
104,258
24,242
4,636
17,979
1,627
2005
68,422
26,261
15,760
9,041
1,460
Local author.
Institution
2003
108,901
7,344
1,116
5,374
854
2005
171,539
10,816
2,903
6,746
1,167
Source: A közigazgatás informatikai eszközei és információs tevékenysége, 2003 and 2005, KSH.
Table 15
Regional data of informatics in administration (1998–2002)
ICT investment (M HUF)
Year
Hungary
Countryside
Dél-Alföld
Bács-Kiskun
Békés
Csongrád
1998
15,929
3,617.3
625.5
346
137
169.4
1999
26,499
3,802.7
769.4
262.1
251.8
255.5
2000
31,322
3,739
502
197
161
144
2001
49,158
4,881
723
266
266
191
2002
66,072
4,552
729
294
211
224
Source: A közigazgatás informatikai eszközei és információs tevékenysége, 2003 and 2005, KSH.
35
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Table 16
Share of employees working with PC (%)
Year
Hungary
Dél-Alföld
Bács-Kiskun
Békés
Csongrád
1998
61.13
51.33
49.64
39.59
68.83
1999
65.16
56.46
53.65
48.50
71.09
2000
61.01
58.77
59.77
46.19
73.43
2001
64.01
60.66
54.71
54.47
78.76
2002
70.17
62.67
57.38
56.34
80.03
Source: A közigazgatás informatikai eszközei és információs tevékenysége, 2003 and 2005, KSH.
The characteristics of the ICTs use of the entrepreneurial sphere can be
examined in three profiles (Table 17). Between 2001 and 2005 the rate of use of
computers increased from 73 to 90% nationally, without a large-scale difference
among counties. Budapest’s preferable position which was clear at the beginning of
the period, was eliminated. Neither of the counties could reach the national
average, the highest rate evolved in Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok county. Around 89% of
companies of Bács-Kiskun, Csongrád and Békés were using computers at the end
of 2005. The difference between the strongest and the weakest counties is less than
3%, which shows the spatial equalization and the entering to a mature period of
enterprise spread of computers. The fact, that while the penetration increased with
10% in the national average between 2001 and 2002, the growth was less than 7%
between 2002 and 2005, denote this phenomenon.
The rate of Internet connection was in the period of quick, steady increase in the
course of the above term. As a result of the yearly 9% increase level between
2001–2004, the 78% of the companies of the country were in possesion of a sort of
network access at the end of the period. The national average was drawn up by the
capital till 2004, when the growth of penetration rate of Budapest was slowed
down, however the counties growing potential became much higher in 2005. That
of the average and the capital city rate of supply in the case of the preceding one
the differences were much larger (12% in 2003 and 8% in 2004), than in 2005
(1.5%) which means that in case of the Internet access 2005 was the year of
moderating spatial inequalities.. The rate of the county in the most favourable
situation (Komárom-Esztergom) was over the national average by only 2%, while
the rearguard Békés falls behind the most developed county by circa 5%. Here the
backwardness of the region has already been manifest, since besides the
unfavourable situation of Békés, Csongrád was in the 10–12th position, Bács-
Kiskun was the 16th in the gradiation although their backwardness behind
Komárom-Esztergom was only 2.6 and 3.3%, when the annual penetration growth
rate was almost 5%. It also indicates that the differences among the counties are
36
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Table 17
Main characteristics of ICT use in enterprises 2001–2005 (%)
County
PC use
Internet use
Own webpage
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Budapest
82.40
85.9
90.1
91.3
90.1
63.61
70.8
78.8
84.1
79.5
20.29
35.8
42.4
54.3
50.9
Pest
65.81
80.4
84.0
86.9
89.0
45.03
54.7
63.4
73.3
78.2
9.15
18.2
23.6
34.5
37.6
Fejér
69.35
82.3
83.2
87.3
89.4
44.99
55.3
62.4
73.4
78.0
9.24
17.8
23.7
32.3
36.5
Komárom-Esztergom
71.23
85.6
84.8
90.1
90.7
45.69
58.0
64.3
76.6
80.2
8.26
18.6
24.9
34.5
37.9
Veszprém
71.03
80.0
83.3
87.8
89.0
39.28
52.9
62.4
74.5
77.6
7.20
17.2
24.6
34.7
36.3
Gyır-Moson-Sopron
70.38
81.2
83.8
87.4
88.9
44.45
54.4
63.3
73.8
77.6
9.40
17.9
24.7
33.3
36.3
Vas
70.27
81.3
83.4
87.3
89.3
41.54
53.4
62.9
72.9
77.5
6.09
15.2
21.8
27.8
33.7
Zala
67.98
83.4
84.3
86.7
89.8
42.55
53.9
63.0
72.4
78.0
7.21
16.5
22.3
31.8
35.2
Baranya
69.58
82.3
84.1
86.8
89.2
43.46
53.1
63.1
72.4
77.5
7.55
16.3
23.2
31.8
36.0
Somogy
69.04
78.9
83.2
87.4
90.1
35.93
47.4
59.3
71.5
76.8
6.37
14.9
21.9
28.1
34.7
Tolna
69.34
83.0
83.8
87.9
88.7
37.87
49.3
61.6
73.3
77.5
5.77
10.2
20.0
26.0
32.1
Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén
68.67
81.8
82.9
88.5
89.6
45.47
53.4
61.1
73.9
77.8
7.46
16.2
22.0
30.8
35.9
Heves
55.80
80.5
82.2
87.8
88.8
34.08
51.3
59.8
73.5
77.1
4.91
13.3
20.2
30.7
35.0
Nógrád
68.50
83.6
83.1
87.1
90.1
44.68
54.7
63.1
73.8
79.3
5.62
13.3
21.3
31.8
38.3
Hajdú-Bihar
68.71
82.3
84.4
87.7
88.7
43.35
51.2
61.0
72.5
76.5
6.99
15.3
21.2
30.9
33.4
Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok
71.16
81.1
85.1
88.1
89.2
45.06
51.2
63.0
72.1
77.2
6.51
14.1
19.9
29.6
32.6
Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg
69.72
80.6
83.4
88.3
88.4
42.87
49.3
59.1
71.6
76.6
5.90
13.1
19.4
27.5
32.9
Bács-Kiskun
68.23
82.5
84.5
86.7
89.3
44.32
52.6
61.9
72.3
76.9
6.52
16.6
22.2
31.0
33.8
Békés
66.24
80.5
82.4
85.3
89.2
39.06
50.4
58.6
68.5
74.9
5.60
11.5
18.1
25.1
29.8
Csongrád
70.15
80.8
83.6
87.7
88.8
43.61
53.7
62.6
72.8
77.6
7.87
17.4
24.1
32.4
35.5
HUNGARY
72.53
82.8
85.6
88.6
89.5
48.72
58.0
67.0
76.2
78.1
11.09
21.6
28.3
38.1
39.8
Source: Az információs és kommunikációs eszközök állománya és felhasználása a gazdálkodó
szervezeteknél, 2001., 2003., 2005., KSH.
37
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
minimal, they might be reversible within one or two years by the application of
aimed development politics.
The rate of companies possessing private website scarcely exceeded 11% in
2001, at the end of 2005 we could registrate already a value almost 40%. This
segment has just entered a quick spreading period, which was moved by mostly the
quick website building of the companies of Budapest between 2002–2005 (rate
increased from 20.4 to 50.9%!), while during the 2003–2005 period the counties
also closed up this rate of development (the total increase of rate of supply was
nationally 18.2%, in the capital 15.1% in the later term). After this the difference
between the development of the country and the capital is significant, in Budapest
more than half of the companies had own website, while in the provinces even in
the most advanced counties 37–38% had it. In this segment, among the counties of
Dél-Alföld Csongrád is the 10th, Bács-Kiskun is the 16th, their backwardness
behind the leader was 2.4 and 4.1%, which seems to be caught up regarding the
annual tune of development. Regrettably, Békés county is rearguard in this field
too, here scarcely 30% of the companies possess own website.
Although regarding the fact that the measure of backwardness comparing with
the most advanced regions is less than two years, it is stateable that the situation of
the companies of the county, what is more, the region is not bad. The rate of
backwardness is less by orders of size than any other conventional economical
indicator, and a regional economic development policy favourable for the
information technologies could be created with far less instruments regarding the
source-requirement.
2 Internet-use in the counties of Dél-Alföld
2.1 Internet subscribers
The Internet subscription market exceeded the 100,000 volume in the course of the
second quarter of 2001, the 250,000 volume approximately in May 2001, in June
2003 the half million, at the end of 2004 the 750,000 volume, at the end of 2005
the one million and in June 2007 the 1,5 million barrier (Table 18). Two recoilings
are demonstrable in the evolution of the number of subscriptions, one lasted from
the end of 2000 to the autumn of 2001, the other from the autumn of 2003 to the
autumn of 2004. In both case the influence of the government-level politics is
demonstrable in the evolution of the number of the subscribtions. In the early
period the modem connection form was determinant, now its rate decreased under
3%. The maximum number of modem connections was in September 2003
(363,000), now it is under 50,000. The ISDN connections, which volume increased
with smaller fluctuations until the beginning of 2004, and it seemed a real
38
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Table 18
Types and number of Internet subscriptions and annual revenue of the sector (in M
HUF)
Year
Month
Type of internet connection
Revenue
(M HUF)
Modem
ISDN
xDSL
Cable-TV
Leased
Wireless
Other
Together
line
1999
March
94,805
974
344
632
33
48
96,836
June
102,296
888
399
661
33
7
104,284
Sept.
114,642
1,333
381
987
11
0
117,354
Dec.
133,672
1,693
486
1,151
12
0
137,014
n.d.
2000
March
156,450
2,668
1,546
1,473
11
39
162,187
June
172,316
8,686
1,674
1,696
11
37
184,420
Sept.
184,243
13,250
1,760
1,803
21
118
201,195
Dec.
201,713
20,838
5,414
1,994
22
128
230,109
5,933.7
2001
March
211,604
23,754
7,228
2,048
28
362
245,024
June
221,152
26,147
10,121
2,058
32
1,462
260,972
Sept.
225,522
25,484
12,745
2,271
35
2,319
268,376
Dec.
247,948
27,947
17,419
2,460
34
6,020
301,828
D
265,190
28,192
17,571
3,108
7,613
321,674
12,549.3
2002
March
283,837
30,462
12,999
20,512
3,258
38
5,391
356,459
June
290,947
36,783
16,912
25,276
3,562
38
10,738
384,218
Sept.
308,313
34,788
24,254
30,387
4,421
36
16,243
418,406
Dec.
327,480
34,549
32,054
31,190
4,487
36
16,103
445,863
21,028
39
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Count. Table 18
Year
Month
Type of internet connection
Revenue
(M HUF)
Modem
ISDN
xDSL
Cable-TV
Leased line
Wireless
Other
Together
2003
March
337,628
31,781
46,794
41,525
4,278
18,993
18,160
499,159
June
346,802
32,376
62,156
48,852
4,468
21,272
18,779
534,705
Sept.
362,924
37,670
84,124
67,207
4,791
21,032
18,084
595,832
Dec.
355,874
35,524
114,813
77,189
4,631
24,055
18,023
630,109
31,189.9
2004
March
320,732
40,249
143,923
89,580
5,602
29,577
10,312
639,975
June
303,866
36,569
166,003
99,587
5,641
30,272
10,290
652,228
Sept.
295,604
36,005
186,952
113,502
5,830
32,665
9,709
680,267
Dec.
284,376
36,118
235,969
135,803
4,384
73,960
10,105
780,716
45,346
2005
March
273,184
31,841
266,339
138,834
4,273
94,862
10,038
819,371
June
239,690
33,644
293,610
156,908
4,460
104,550
10,443
843,306
Sept.
222,990
30,266
327,748
179,633
3,968
116,660
12,442
893,707
Dec.
210,662
30,949
372,523
212,145
4,507
155,988
13,963
1,000,737
64,753
2006
March
197,501
29,235
436,132
256,800
4,705
166,553
14,911
1,105,837
June
160,751
15,602
450,395
308,431
4,594
199,505
15,365
1,154,643
Sept.
69,164
18,913
523,264
347,873
4,470
218,065
13,295
1,195,044
Dec.
70,969
14,909
597,331
374,647
4,749
251,774
15,246
1,329,625
85,468
2007
March
53,796
13,494
650,306
443,742
6,285
296,973
14,067
1,494,104
June
49,147
13,332
682,396
473,350
5,348
325,781
17,328
1,576,011
Sept.
65,683
709,945
511,384
7,827
376,259
19,308
1,690,403
Dec.
62,985
739,028
557,904
7,718
434,361
24,338
1,826,334
111,517
Source: Statistical quaterly review on Internet-sector, KSH.
40
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
alternative besides the modem connection for a short period (the maximum number
of subscribers were over 40,000), they possessed a marginal share under 1% at
June 2007 (just over 13.300 persons and companies). At present the xDSL and the
cable connection possibilities mean the two real competing technologies, both of
them are suitable for broadband data transmission. Basically the share of leased
line is minimal (0.3%) because of the price calculation problems, the number of
connections stagnating after 2004. The role of microwave connections is slowly
improving, but it may become a real alternative only by the considerable growth of
Wi-Fi access points. The wireless Internet use got an increasing role in Hungary,
after the WAP, GPRS and EDGE technologies, but the real breakthrough will come
after the establishment of 3G mobile-networks.
2.2 The spread of internet and broadband subscribers in Dél-Alföld region31
The rate of broadband subscribers was just over 10% of all internet subscribers in
March 2002. This percent went up to 25% in the Autumn of 2003, 50% in the
Summer 2005 and 75% in the Autumn of 2007. The penetration of subscription per
1000 inhabitants grew up from 3,5 to 131,8 between 2002 and 2007 in Hungary.
The regional (NUTS 2) data is available from the Summer of 2004. In that mo-
ment about 10% of all broadband subscribers were concentrated in the Dél-Alföld
Region. This 25.000 clients involve a three-fourth penetration rate comparing the
national average. In 2005-2006 period the region concentrate only 9.3% of all
broadband subscribers, so the penetration rate fall down to 70%. The 2007 year
was a period of convergence and rapid growth for the Dél-Alföld Region, so the
number of subscribers almost doubled in one year (from 77,500 to 139,000) and
the penetration rate comparing the national average grew up to 86%.
The county-level (NUTS 3), micro-regional (LAU 1) and settlement (LAU 2) data
is available only in the last two years, so we have limited information to point out
the major development trends in lower administrative levels.
However, among the counties in Dél-Alföld, Csongrád is in the most favourable
position (Table 19). In 2006 the penetration rate was just under the national aver-
age (93%) and one year later this index grew up to 107% thanks to a very rapid
growth in the number of subscribers (from 33,000 to 55,000). Csongrád is one of
the most active counties in Hungary (4-5th in the rank of counties) in adopting this
kind of new technologies. Bács-Kiskun had a time-lag in this adoption process. In
2006 the penetration rate was only 60% comparing the national average, but one
year later the gay became thicker (84%). This rapid growth in the number of clients
31The basis of this data came from the National Communication Authority (NHH) and Central
Statistical Office (KSH) of Hungary.
41
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
(from 27,000 to 53,000) resulted that the position of Bács-Kiskun in the rank of
Table 19
Types of internet subscriptions by counties, 2004–2006
County
2004
2005
2006
Subscr./100 inhab.
All
xDSL
C-TV wireless
All
xDSL
C-TV wireless
All
xDSL
C-TV wireless 2004 2005 2006
Budapest
493,626 134,782
73,590
70,172
532,612 192,738
95,737
78,846 457,031 187,228 168,979
54,431 28.95 31.38 26.91
Pest
43,424 20,236
6,273
2,017
70,678
36,474
17,212
3,587 166,046
96,749
31,459
28,835 3.80
6.11 14.11
Fejér
15,794
7,504
2,042
526
29,724
12,453
2,851
9,679
43,746
26,869
4,964
9,202 3.68
6.94 10.20
Komárom-Eszt.
10,463
4,701
1,633
345
16,524
8,040
3,065
2,137
35,989
20,481
5,932
7,520 3.32
5.25 11.42
Veszprém
14,218
1,518
1,882
1,338
13,059
2,564
4,414
2,151
28,632
16,995
3,466
5,058 3.88
3.58
7.87
Gyır-Moson-S.
23,486
9,351
4,807
70
35,965
15,340
8,085
4,831
53,301
29,820
12,508
6,751 5.34
8.14 12.04
Vas
9,298
2,958
2,044
3
14,111
4,981
3,730
2,013
20,912
10,565
5,762
2,705 3.51
5.34
7.94
Zala
14,242
4,495
3,508
943
22,929
8,096
6,610
4,023
35,785
14,966
10,131
7,,880 4.82
7.79 12.19
Baranya
22,048
6,453
6,077
2,422
24,676
13,598
1,772
4,535
44,954
21,800
3,958
16,718 5.51
6.19 11.29
Somogy
12,081
3,931
1,762
58
13,937
6,629
2,343
839
33,278
13,943
6,723
10,637 3.64
4.23 10.13
Tolna
8,675
4,400
387
3
12,067
7,443
790
805
16,354
11,396
408
3,130 3.54
4.97
6.79
Borsod-Abaúj-Z.
26,284
5,205
11,896
1,544
44,477
9,534
20,455
8,499
74,245
21,515
34,130
15,909 3.59
6.13 10.33
Heves
11,948
3,988
2,322
20
16,143
7,428
3,697
,425
30,065
15,447
6,389
6,439 3.70
5.03
9.41
Nógrád
6,494
935
216
1,808
12,725
2,529
328
6,787
17,789
5,798
1,989
8,511 3.00
5.92
8.35
Hajdú-Bihar
19,228
7,415
294
191
24,245
13,233
1,525
2,514
40,114
22,756
4,602
7,584 3.50
4.43
7.35
Jász-Nk.-Szolnok
12,725
4,028
3,118
832
20,729
7,959
6,399
2,638
38,725
19,278
11,057
6,107 3.10
5.09
9.59
Szabolcs-Sz.-B.
13,253
3,747
4,650
3
24,351
7,612
9,017
3,342
43,707
15,368
12,225
13,810 2.28
4.21
7.59
Bács-Kiskun
15,359
8,486
936
23
31,412
12,328
9,737
3,902
53,542
24,202
15,236
11,836 2.84
5.84
9.98
Békés
10,978
914
3020
2,075
15,315
2,300
5,925
4,045
34,158
5,774
14,890
11,930 2.82
3.97
8.94
Csongrád
11,253
920
4,846
3,732
25,058
1,242
8,454
10,391
61,252
16,380
19,840
19,781 2.65
5.92 14.46
HUNGARY
794,877 235,967 135,303
88,125 1,000,737 3,72,521 212,146 155,989 1,329,625 597,330 374,648 254,774 7.86
9.91 13.20
Broadband+mobile
57.80
29.69
17.02
11.09
74.01
37.22
21.20
15.59
92.26
44.92
28.18
19.16
Source: Az internet elıfizetések területi megoszlása, KSH, 2008.
counties improved. While the leading sector of development was higher and terti-
ary education, R&D sector, business services, regional and county-level institutions
and manufacturing in Csongrád, the stimulations of growth came from the econ-
omy and institutions in Bács-Kiskun. Békés was almost in the worst position
among Hungarian counties (2nd weakest activity rate) and the penetration rate in
2006 was only the half of the national average. The catching up period has begun
in 2007 but the results were less impressive comparing Bács-Kiskun. The level of
broadband subscribers grew up two-third of the national average, but the gap be-
tween the most active regions and Békés is wide.
The close up process we could describe in county level is more characteristic in
micro-regional level, as well. In 2006 only the Szeged agglomeration zone’s ac-
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Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
tivity level was over the national average (Table 19). There were four more micro-
regions (around the other most important centres of the region) over 75% of the
national average. In 2007 the picture changed dramatically, the majority of micro-
regions (13 of 25) jump over the 75% level and there were four of them over the
national average, with two more very close to it. On the other tip of the scale the
indecees suggest the similar process. In 2006 almost the half of micro-regions were
under the half of the national average in the level of broadband subscribers, and
there were two of them under 25%. One year later only four of the remaining under
the 50% level and the activity rate of the worst was 35% of the national average.
The problem is, that in Békés county three small regions in the Southern and
Northeastern parts forming larger zones of less active areas (Table 20). This under-
development trend in this field merging a lot of ‘traditional’ economic, social and
infrastructural index and deepen the peripherality of these regions.
The lowest level of data in broadband subscribers connected to settlements
(LAU2 units). In this scale we will concentrate not the individual trends of certain
villages, or towns, but the processes forming the spatial structure of the region in
this field of activity. In 2006 there were only two active poles in the Dél-Alföld Re-
gion, one around the centre of the region Szeged and a smaller spatial concentra-
tion around Baja, along the river Danube, close to the Serbian border zone. There
are lots of central settlements in the region with 15–110,000 inhabitants, but most
of them were relatively passive in that moment, comparing to the rival towns of
Hungary (Figure 6).
The data from 2007 showed a quite different picture thanks to the rapidly
growing demand of the broadband internet access. The strengthening and spreading
active zones around the larger centres, along the main roads and other axis of flows
describe the major regional characteristic of Dél-Alföld Region (Figure 7). It
seems, that this new phenomena does not create new spatial structure, instead of it
fixing the ‘traditional’ inequalities. These active zones parcelled majority of the
former passive zones. The level of activity of important centres of the region grew
rapidly, the gap between them and the rivals inside Hungary almost eliminated.
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Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Table 20
The number of broadband internet users in Dél-Alföld region, 2006, 2007
Name of LAU1
Subscr.
Popul.
Penetr. Subscr.
Popul.
Penetr. In % of In % of
units
level
level
national national
average average
2006
2007
2006
2007
Baja
5,270
76,906
69
9469
76,906
123
84.15
93.18
Bácsalmás
447
18,578
24
1064
18,578
57
29.27
43.18
Kalocsa
2,269
57,595
39
5060
57,656
88
47.56
66.67
Kecskemét
11,168
167,150
67
20240
167,150
121
81.71
91.67
Kiskırös
2,379
58,956
40
4847
58,956
82
48.78
62.12
Kiskunfélegyháza
1,820
52,016
35
3671
52,042
71
42.68
53.79
Kiskunhalas
1,909
47,488
40
4451
47,488
94
48.78
71.21
Kiskunmajsa
659
17,261
38
1223
17,261
71
46.34
53.79
Kunszentmiklós
1,040
32,261
32
2211
32,289
68
39.02
51.52
Jánoshalma
406
17,885
23
1202
17,885
67
28.05
50.76
Bács-Kiskun county
27,367
546,096
50
53438
546,211
98
60.98
74.24
Békéscsaba
5,129
76,112
67
9241
76,112
121
81.71
91.67
Mezıkovácsháza
1,271
45,963
28
1818
45,946
40
34.15
30.30
Orosháza
2,660
63,874
42
4351
63,874
68
51.22
51.52
Sarkad
323
25,399
13
1132
25,393
45
15.85
34.09
Szarvas
2,296
31,921
72
3122
31,921
98
87.80
74.24
Szeghalom
709
43,310
16
1867
43,304
43
19.51
32.58
Békés
1,455
57,447
25
4304
57,447
75
30.49
56.82
Gyula
2,894
53,573
54
5163
53,573
96
65.85
72.73
Békés county
16,737
397,599
42
30998
397,570
78
51.22
59.09
Csongrád
1,293
25,225
51
2086
25,225
83
62.20
62.88
Hódmezıvásárhely
3,941
60,669
65
6248
60,669
103
79.27
78.03
Kistelek
619
19,467
32
887
19,467
46
39.02
34.85
Makó
2,404
50,209
48
4310
50,209
86
58.54
65.15
Mórahalom
824
26,199
31
1674
26,199
64
37.80
48.48
Szeged
21,288
208,225 102
34464
208,225
166
124.39
125.76
Szentes
2,990
45,850
65
4917
45,850
107
79.27
81.06
Csongrád county
33,359
435,844
77
54586
435,844
125
93.90
94.70
DÉL-ALFÖLD
77,463 1,379,539
56
139022 1,37,9625
101
68.29
76.52
Source: NHH, 2007., 2008.
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Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Figure 6
Broadband internet use by LAU2 units in Dél-Alföld (30/06/2006)
Source: Based on the data of NHH, 2007.
Figure 7
Broadband internet use by LAU2 units in Dél-Alföld (30/06/2007)
Source: Based on the data of NHH, 2008.
45
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
The special developmental characteristic of the region, the high importance of
small ‘market-towns’ and large villages seems an advantage in this special inno-
vation area, differing from other economic processes (e.g. attracting FDI, level of
entrepreneurship, concentration of decision-making centres, global competitive-
ness). The other side of the same process is the emerging activity of smaller set-
tlements. The growing number of broadband internet clients differ the formerly
homogeneously passive villages not only in the vicinity of larger centres, but in the
majority of the region. The number of subscribers emerged rapidly in the majority
of villages, however that was not enough to jump up into a higher category in one
year. Larger passive zones are remaining particularly in Békés county, which can
be describe the periphery of the Dél-Alföld region.
The new, dynamically increasing segment of the market of computer
technology is the wireless access, and the increase of bandwidth provided by them
drive it forward. This service is available by the help of laptop, notebook, palmtop
or 3G mobile phone equipped with the appropriate outlet. The big cities of the
western world (New York, Paris, Amsterdam, Rome) got to the point in the
development, that they establish the real outdoor linkage possibilities eg. in parks,
picnic areas by the help of small aerials, within a radius of 300 m of them the data
transmission becomes possible. Most of the towns handle the WiFi establishment
as a strategic question, since the police, the fire brigade or perhaps the traffic
department require the more effective connection to the network.
The spread of WiFi network has started in Hungary too, primarily concentrating
on the capital city (hotels, coffee bars, shopping centres, Ferihegy Airport),
basically providing indoor linkage possibility. In the larger countryside towns the
initiation of Gyır is known among the development conceptions, where the
coverage of the town’s walking street and the joint caterer places is at issue with
the help of the establishment of outdoor aerials. In Dél-Alföld there are just a few
similar initiations, but the coverage of frequented pedestrian zones in the cities, the
establishment of networks of hotels, coffee bars and shopping centres probably will
not keep us waiting for long time.
2.3 Tele-houses and public Internet connection possibilities in Dél-Alföld
The results of realising the Information Society, the practical applications (e-
administration, telework, e-commerce) and the access of different information
sources at this time does not belong to a narrow geographical area or a special
social class, group. However, we can say that social accessibility towards ICTs, IT-
related services in term of material, technological background, physically are
differ. The reasons are depend on the differing technical level of society, the level
of education (particularly the e-illiteracy), the cultural background, the financial
possibilities.
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
In the certain development level of Hungary, as a whole, and Dél-Alföld region
we could say, that technical, and technological barriers (e.g. missing info-
communication networks, level of digitalisation, data-transmission possibilities)
and the quality of informatics services does not mean a strong barrier to influent
the possibility of Internet connections and to utilise the synergetic effect of Internet
use.
The rate of connected actor emerging slowly in the region, because of the
cultural background (particularly for elderly people), the level of education, the
missing social programmes helping the adaptation of new technologies and
applications, and with the larger influence, the financial conditions of local society.
The limited demand comparing the well-developed regions, in parallel with the
relative high prices of internet useage handicap the diffusion of home PCs. That’s
why the public internet connection possibilities (tele-houses, Internet-cafes,
eHungary points) play a decisive role in accessing the global information sources.
The role of these places does not confined to this activity area, they help to widen
the digital literacy in the local society, they offer new types of e-content, improving
the local activity and playing a quite important role in begin a lot of common
initiatives and starting local movements (e.g. ‘green’ activities).
As an important factor of building information society, moderating the digital
gap and forming the common life of local society the major part connects to tele-
house movement in the last decade.32 It seems true, however, the experts of this
theme arguing the real social trends, the importance, the useability and effectivity
of tele-houses.
The network of tele-houses began in 1994 and the diffusion was very fast,
however the number of tele-houses under the forecast of the ‘Tele-house
Association’. Their prognostic: 800 tele-houses and 1200 tele-cottages33 for the
year 2003, while the real trend was just over 500 units. The reasons of the lower
diffusion rate can be found in the governmental policy (very limited amount of
money for supporting the existing elements), the dispute among experts about the
social significance of the local units, the passivity of local society against the
offered e-services. After a consolidation in 2007 the network counts 440 tele-
houses existed, 274 of them offered high level e-services and 166 served on basic
level.
The Dél-Alföld region’s self-governments, entrepreneurs and social
organisations played an important role in strengthening the Hungarian tele-house
network. At the end of 1990s there were only 4 existing tele-houses in the region,
the number of units emerged to 15 in 2000, and 78 in 2005 (settled in 75 villages
and towns) and offered different office and computer services for the local people
32The Sulinet program had a rather important role, as well, in the 2004–2006 years.
33A smaller unit working in one, or two rooms, with a few computers connected to a local institution
(primary school, library, community centre, self-government etc.)
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Discussion Papers, No. 64.
and entrepreneurs (Figure 8). In 2007 in the region 48 more developed units
worked (15 in Bács-Kiskun, 10 in Békés and 23 in Csongrád) with the assistance of
17 smaller tele-cottages (5-5 in Bács-Kiskun and Békés, 7 in Csongrád).
Figure 8
The location of tele-houses in Dél-Alföld region
Source: The author’s own compilation based on http://www.telehaz.hu (2005)
The importance of diffusion of tele-houses and eHungary points (there were 301
of them in 176 settlements in the region in 2005)34 was rather high, but it was more
essential that these units made possible to use modern IT-equipment, new e-
contents and public services, which were the disadvantage areas of building up
Information Society, with a serious digital gap lagging behind the more urbanised,
well-developed regions and settlements. The major role of public Internet-access
points are to moderate spatial and social inequalities, eliminate social inclusion in
using the possibilities of Internet even in peripheral areas, and for the socially
disadvantage people (social groups). These networks help to overcome the material
34In 2007 the network of eHungary points count 1364 units altogether and 248 in Dél-Alföld. This
amount of such kind of public Internet access points is the highest among the regions, however the
penetration rate 1,83 per 10,000 person is significantly lower comparing with Nyugat- and Dél-
Dunántúl regions (2,11 and 2,24). In Bács-Kiskun there are 87 eHungary points, in Békés 79 and in
Csongrád 82. However the index is 50% over the national average.
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Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
and cultural barriers, moderating the hazards of the challenges of newly forming
‘Information Age’. The two parallel networks and their units (313 altogether)
covered almost all settlements in the region (254 of them), particularly in Békés
(94 units for 75 settlements) and Csongrád (112 units for 60 settlements), offering
sometimes rival public access opportunities inside a village or a town (Figure 9).
Figure 9
The spatial spread of eHungary points
Source: The author’s own compilation based on http://www.emagyarorszag.hu (2005)
Tele-houses and eHungary points play an active role in adapting new
technologies adjusting new forms of services and benefit from the possibilities of
Internet. We try to show some challenges and potential community answers:
− Fasting time, increasing uncertainty, emerging new technologies (The World
became more difficult, more variable and more colourful in the last decades
through a huge amount of new innovation in economy, technology, society.
Understanding and adapting changes, finding the new ways in the ‘jungle of
information’ make a major challenge for the small local communities.
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− Information ‘Big-Bang’ (The amount of information growing exponentialy,
the rate of relevant information decreasing, and the technique of ‘information
mining’ become more difficult).
− Importance of digital literacy, diffusion of informatics in different fields of
life (The emerging share of existing information is accessible only through
digital form, via ICTs).
The crucial role of tele-houses and eHungary points in the process of
adjustment to the challenges of emerging Information Society could be the
orientation, publicity, preparation, stimulation and motivation, and particularly in
the area of education. On the other side, these service centres could help the local
communities with their technical-technological background, the personnel and
institutional connections. In a later phase they can offer telework places stimulating
the local employment. This tools are important in the management of the
challenges under:
− Accessibility of digital equipment (possibility of employment, data and
information collection, equal opportunity)
− Emerging connections between local and global economies (The small
communities are prefer the development of local economy, but the
globalisation and the challenge of competitiveness limited their possibilities
in forming a local development policy. They are obliged to find a certain way
of development: including special knowledge, technique, information base,
relations, new forms of employment in some cases which are suitable for
local pretensions).
Forming and stimulating local communities, mediating local values, culture
could be highly important inside the role of tele-houses to eliminate the hazards of
‘Information Age’ influenced the local societies:
− Individualisation and alienation in parallel the emerging importance of neo-
liberal ideology (the number of ‘traditional’ family and friendship-type
connections decreasing, their importance diminishing).
− Weakening attach to locality (The number of ‘traditional’ social connections
decreasing, the number of local workplaces diminishing, the social and
spatial mobility level increasing).
− Value and identity crisis (The meeting of different cultures become more
frequent and intensive, with positive and negative consequences in parallel
(diversity vs. conflicts), conflict of civilisations after Huntington).
The major problems of tele-houses in Dél-Alföld region seems:
− Human resources – The majority of tele-houses employed only one expert,
without a long-term contract. The subsidies from the central government help
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Discussion Papers, No. 64.
them to create a new job, but hardly to maintain it. In a large group there are
only part-time workers in the tele-house, which means a limited time for
Internet-users. The employees’ majority has no special education
background, in some cases they were unable to provide the offered services
in a high quality and the further training possibilities were limited.
− Financial background – Half of the tele-houses in the region produce deficit
year by year, because of the limited budget. The applications could help them
to survive, but means a large uncertainty for the units. The crucial question is
how to emerge the revenues. To introduce new services seemed risky,
because of the limited local demand.
− Equipment, technical development – The tele-houses of Dél-Alföld generally
well-equipped, the broadband connection with Internet is common. The
average number of PCs is around 8. The major problem how to care about the
agening computers, how to change the old ones.
− Services – The opening time must harmonise with the claim of users, it
makes some complication in some villages. The majority of worked tele-
houses without own homepage. The services connected strongly with
computers and other equipment. The quality of offered services showed a
wide range difference among the tele-houses. The number of trainings,
cultural and receation programmes were very limited.
− Partnership – The connections among tele-houses were rare, instead of the
‘umbrella’ organisation called Public Association of Tele-houses in Dél-
Alföld is existing with an own portal. In some cases (where business
companies operate the units) the links with local self-government were
missing. The local NGOs could be the main partners of tele-houses, but in
2005 the connections with them were unique.
− Local inhabitants, potential users – The offered service palette was not
attractive enough for the wider user-groups. The average number of guests
were 80–100 person per week, mainly children (using Internet-base games),
and a significant part of clients recruited from the local NGOs, when the
business partners are hardly could be seen in tele-houses.
− Marketing, quality assurance – The future work and further development of
tele-houses base on the clear legal background of foundation, the
competencies and responsibilities, the tasks and functions of founders, the
precise roles of financing. We see and important element of the methods and
tools of monitoring particularly the quality management of offered services.
It seems a crucial factor to make a demand-analysis before the start of the
operation concentrating on local enterprises and society needs in parallel the
advertisement of possible services in local level.
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The activity of tele-houses and the results of a numerous research in the field of
social sciences suggest, that this network is an effective tool for decreasing ‘digital
gap’ even spatially and socially. The existing and widening network with a well
defined governmental policy can create the new form of rural development suitable
for the challenges of ‘Information Age’ through infrastructural, institutional and
human resource development. The major pillar of this policy is partnership among
central and local governments, founders and owners of tele-houses, local business
actors and NGOs and of course the main user groups.
3. The content provider’s activity in the region
3.1 Registration of Domain-name servers
The first domain name server of Dél-Alföld was set working in 1993, to years after
the first Hungarian domain name registration. Because of the low pretensions of
informatics experienced in the region, the weak establishment of the IT-network,
the incomplete services, and the high price of servers only a moderate increase is
observable in case of the number of registrations until 1997.
The second period of augmentation started in the second third of the 1990s and
lasted until the beginning of 2000. The slow economic recovery, the establishment
of IT-networks, the widening of the scope of applications and the spectacular
growth of requirements were in the background of the development of informatics
and the growth of equipment stock. The next period, lasting up to the present,
started in the first quarter of 2000. A characteristic of the impulse of increase is that
the number of servers multiplied tenfold just in the last six years, which caused not
only quantitative increase but the modernization of the computer stock, and the
sudden improvement of the equality of IT-services.
The first petition for domain name registration, which is indispensable for
Internet mailing and content providing arrived to the record keeper ‘The Council of
Internet Providers’ in 1993.
In the first half of the 1990s it was typical that the registrations came primarily
from Szeged and the county-seats on a very concentrated way: on the one hand
examining the activity-side from the field of economy and education, on the other
hand analysing the affection of settlement. Until the second half of the 1990s, we
cannot mention the regional spread on a larger scale in the field of domain name
registrations. Real change was observable from 1998, when the 270 domain
registration came from 35 settlements. It is a characteristic of the county
distribution that owing to the dominant ICT importance, the share of Csongrád
county significantly exceeded the share of the other two counties. The past ten
years also brought significant transformation in the examined terrain. The most
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Discussion Papers, No. 64.
outstanding change is the sudden increase of the number of domain name
registrations, which was influenced not only by the increase of the economical
solvency and the governmental IT-programmes, but the liberalisation of domain
name registrations, which essentially facilitate obtaining domain names for
individuals.
In the period between 1998 and 2004 in Dél-Alföld the number of registrations
increased twenty-seven-fold owing to the favourable economical and social
processes. The spatial spread of the domain name registrations is well represented
by the fact that as opposed to the 35 settlements, in 2004 domain applications
arrived from 194 settlements (of the total 254) (Table 21). But the considerable part
of the growth applied from the cities and medium-sized towns henceforward, thus
their rate is very high within the settlement structure (91%). The most domain
name applications in the region arrived from Szeged (2.569), but the data of
Kecskemét (1.242), Békéscsaba (531), Baja (366) and Hódmezıvásárhely (337)
reflect significant IT-activity, too (Figure 10–11).
From the spatial localization of domain name registrations being in close
connection with the informatical activity, we reason that the use of servers and the
joint services need special pretensions (good infrastructural provision, skilled
manpower, relatively big consumer market, high entrepreneur density, generous
service offer etc.).Contrast with other economical activities the domain name
registering partners can find these conditions almost solely in the towns, to be more
exact in the regional centres well-supplied with economical, educational, cultural
and administrative functions, possessing larger competence in the field of
decisions.
Examining the regional proportion of domain registrations we can state that
regarding the rate of supply Dél-Alföld – with Közép- and Dél-Dunántúl – are in
possession of average indicators. Regarding the data, it can be stated that the share
of Dél-Alföld increased in the past years, considering the domain registrations,
which proves that the receptivity to admit of ICT-devices, use the new
opportunities, while the moderate rate of increase draws attention to the fact that on
the one hand the incomes, on the other hand the lack of consistent government
politics may strongly restrain the progress.
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Table 21
Number of domain name registrations by counties (1998, 2004)
Counties
Domain name
Regional distribution
Number of domain
registration (No.)
of registrations (%)
name server
registrations per 1000
1998
03/2004
1998
03/2004
inhabitants (03/2004)
Bács-Kiskun
78
2,793
1.59
2.39
5.13
Békés
47
1,179
0.96
1.00
2.98
Csongrád
145
3,344
2.95
2.86
7.83
Dél-Alföld
270
7,316
5.50
6.25
5.35
Baranya
92
2,791
1.88
2.39
6.90
Somogy
53
1,551
1.09
1.33
4.62
Tolna
28
793
0.57
0.68
3.18
Dél-Dunántúl
173
5,135
3.54
4.40
5.14
Hajdú-Bihar
103
2,547
2.10
2.17
4.62
Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok
50
1,280
1.02
1.09
3.08
Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg
41
1,908
0.84
1.63
3.25
Észak-Alföld
194
5,735
3.96
4.89
3.69
Fejér
106
2,561
2.16
2.19
5.98
Komárom-Esztergom
55
1,574
1.12
1.34
4.99
Veszprém
73
2,297
1.49
1.96
6.21
Közép-Dunántúl
234
6,432
4.77
5.49
5.78
Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén
70
2,516
1.43
2.15
3.38
Heves
46
1,457
0.94
1.24
4.48
Nógrád
26
639
0.53
0.55
2.91
Észak-Magyarország
142
4,612
2.90
3.94
3.58
Budapest
3,435
70,261
70.06
60.00
40.87
Pest
245
11,023
4.99
9.42
9.97
Közép-Magyarország
3,680
81,284
75.05
69.42
28.78
Gyır-Moson-Sopron
116
3,418
2.36
2.92
7.79
Vas
45
1,510
0.92
1.29
5.65
Zala
49
1,634
1.00
1.40
5.49
Nyugat-Dunántúl
210
6,562
4.28
5.61
6.53
Hungary altogether
4,903
117,076
100.00
100.00
11.54
Source: Internet Szolgáltatók Tanácsa [Council of Internet service providers] 2004.
54
Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Figure 10
Domain-name registration by LAU 1 units, 2004
Source: The author’s own compilation based on Council of Hungarian Internet Providers.
Figure 11
Domain-name registrations by settlements (LAU 2), 2004
Source: The author’s own compilation based on Council of Hungarian Internet Providers.
55
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Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
3.2 Domain-name registrations by main activity fields
If we examine the activity area of domain name applicants of Dél-Alföld we
experience that in 2004 the 68% of registrations happened in six spheres
(administration, economy, R&D, civil institutions, public education, education)
considered the most important regarding the establishment of information society
(Table 22).
Table 22
The number and share of domain name registrations by main terrains
(1998, 2004)
Year
Admini-
NGOs
Economy Culture
R&D
Education Others
stration
1998
Registration
17
12
192
3
8
18
20
1998
Share
6
5
71
1
3
7
7
2004
Registration
194
184
4387
54
48
103
2346
2004
Share
3
3
59
1
1
1
32
Source: Based on the data from Internet Szolgáltatók Tanácsa (Council of Internet service providers)
2004.
Almost the 60% of the applicants came out of the companies, enterprises of the
economic sphere. The high rate is absolutely not surprising, since in this sphere the
most concrete is the expected profit of the IT-investment and the refund of the
invested amount (eg. IT-services, e-trade, advertising activity, high-speed
communication). It is not accidental that between 1998 and 2004 the number of
registrations increased twenty-two-fold. It might be generally told that although in
different tune, but the number of organizations possessing domain name increased
in every activity area.
The ‘other’ category must be separately emphasized, where the 32% of all the
registrations. The high rate is mostly explained by the fact that the individuals also
got to this category, who presented their applications in great quantities after the
liberalization of domain name registrations. This considerable interest is
attributable to on the one hand the appearance of the individual content providers,
on the other hand the fact that the individual entrepreneurs entered in great number
the computer technology and the informatics spheres, where the companies (eg.
preparation of home page, information and data store service, data bank activity,
network operation) might be started with the help of relatively low capital
investment, which required the domain name registration and the use of server.
The IT-activity of civic institutions and foundations (NGOs) is also significant.
The number of domain names and home pages of the institutions considerably
56
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Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
increased since 1998. The appearance of the NGOs on the Internet was
significantly urged by the CXXVI law of 1996,35 which provided the use of the
1+1% of the income tax.
It can be proved that in the past ten years several administrative, official and
self-governing institutions registrated own domain name, which number recently
exceeded 190. Even independent home pages belong to the most of them, through
which several official affairs (invitations of tenders, applications, recordings,
administration of documents, information) may be handled in electronic form in the
future, starting and helping the spread of e-administration and the evolution of
electronic public administration.
The IT efforts of educational institutions are well seen too. The institutions of
higher and general education registrated 103 domains altogether, in the past period.
Because of the growing necessity of further study and the animation of the demand
towards certain specialities several colleges and universities could start the fee-
paying educational activity. In favour of the introduction of these opportunities the
prestige of schools and the service of numerous computers equipped with Internet
the number of ancillary servers significantly increased. Similarly, we can owe the
setting of more dozens of servers to the ‘Sulinet-programme’, with the help of it
several secondary and primary school could begin the content providing through
Internet in the region.
The appearance of the general education and the R&D-spheres on the Internet is
regrettably weak nowadays. The general culture institutions (museums, community
centres, theatres etc.) registrated cca. 54, the R&D institutions only 48 domain
names. This low number indicates – also from this point of view – the embarrassed
financial circumstances of the culture and R&D institutions of the region (because
in most cases there is no money for the maintenance of domain servers, the
electronic processing representation of collections, scientific achievements and
cover its expenses), and the deficit of the appearance of the culture and the science
of Dél-Alföld on the Internet.
Entirely it is stateable that the rate of supply of domain servers of Dél-Alföld
region significantly improved. In the past five years the dynamic, but very
concentrated informatical development was typical. But it must be emphasized that
the decisive part of the IT investments, especially the domain name registrations
settled in towns. These processes draw attention to an important occurrence
determining the spatial structure and the regional development. Besides the present
tendencies and the already existing problems in rural areas, which basically under
development (eg. defects of infrastructural rate of supply, economical
35Under the ‘Law CXXXVI (1996) on the utilization of the determined part of the income tax
according to the tax-payer’ the non-profit companies, foundations satisfying the conditions of ‘Law
CLVI (1997) on the non-profit organisations’, could reckon on the 1% of the income tax of
taxpayers, thus after the introduction of the law several associations, clubs and foundations became
financially concerned to present their activity as widely as possible.
57
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Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
backwardness, unemployment) we should reckon on a new challenge determining
the future. The different opportunities of access of the IT-networks and devices
(both physically and financially) may continue to aggravate the developmental
differences between the town and rural areas. The low social adaptation of the use
of informatics continues to widen the ‘digital gap’ between villages and towns on
the level of social success and the opportunities of individuals, which carries
several unfavourable consequences (eg. social deviations, depopulation of certain
areas, mass migration of population into the towns).
4 Electronic media market in the Region
The local and regional media may play an important role in the information flow of
the region. While in case of the press the picture is relatively clear, since besides
the nationally distributed information sources county and local papers, and
thematic publications appear in the region, and these generally approach a well
confinable target public. But the units of the electronic media are slightly thematic
within their fradcasting area, they try to shape a programme structure, attractive for
the most wide range of social classes, and also undertake certain public-utility tasks
at least on a basic level. In this regard the importance of local television systems
and the regional television and radio broadcast is outstanding, but we should not
forget the opportunities implied in the commercial radios possessing stable and
wide audience. Although the conceptions about the start of regional television,
which came to light in the recent years, were not realized, the neccessary steps
already clearly appear according to the plan (Bubryják, 2001), the re-announcement
of realization would not be expedient.
The network of the local television service companies of the region is
incomplete, even if we know that a municipal studio broadcast for a larger area.
The basic possibility of broadcasting is provided by the cable networks, it excludes
a significant part of the population of the region from the reception of programmes
of local interest, partly because cable network does not work in the settlement,
partly because the development has not yet arrived to the given residental area.
This information opportunity is not replaceable with private satellite dishes, of
which penetration is more favourable in Dél-Alföld than the national average. The
preceding phenomenon shows all the same, that the population of the region is
open to the current of events in the world, they readily receive new information and
not only look for, but apply th possible access paths to satisfy the requirements
(Figure 12).
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
Figure 12
Localelektronic mediums in Dél-Aflöld, 2005
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Kanalas, Imre - Nagy, Gábor : The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary.
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2008. 64. p.
Discussion Papers, No. 64.
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Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary
The Discussion Papers series of the Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences was launched in 1986 to publish summaries of research findings on
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Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary
Papers published in the Discussion Papers series
Discussion Papers / Specials
BENKİNÉ LODNER, Dorottya (ed.) (1988): Environmental Control and Policy: Proceedings of the
Hungarian–Polish Seminar in the Theoretical Problems of Environmental Control and
Policy
OROSZ, Éva (ed.) (1988): Spatial Organisation and Regional Development Papers of the 6th Polish–
Hungarian geographical Seminar
DURÓ, Annamária (ed.) (1993): Spatial Research and the Social–Political Changes: Papers of the 7th
Polish–Hungarian Seminar
DURÓ, Annamária (ed.) (1999): Spatial Research in Support of the European Integration.
Proceedings of the 11th Polish–Hungarian Geographical Seminar (Mátraháza, Hungary
17–22 September, 1998)
GÁL, Zoltán (ed.) (2001): Role of the Regions in the Enlarging European Union
HORVÁTH, Gyula (ed.) (2002): Regional Challenges of the Transition in Bulgaria and Hungary
KOVÁCS, András Donát (ed.) (2004): New Aspects of Regional Transformation and the Urban-Rural
Relationship
BARANYI, Béla (ed.) (2005): Hungarian–Romanian and Hungarian–Ukrainian border regions as
areas of co-operation along the external borders of Europe
ENYEDI, György – KOVÁCS, Zoltán (eds.) (2006): Social Changes and Social Sustainability in
Historical Urban Centres. The Case of Central Europe
KOVÁCS, András Donát (ed.) (2007): Regionality and/or Locality
SZIRMAI, Viktória (ed.) (2007): Social Inequalities in Urban Areas and Globalization. The Case of
Central Europe
Discussion Papers
No. 1
OROSZ, Éva (1986): Critical Issues in the Development of Hungarian Public Health with
Special Regard to Spatial Differences
No. 2
ENYEDI, György – ZENTAI, Viola (1986): Environmental Policy in Hungary
No. 3
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1987): Administrative Division and Administrative Geography in
Hungary
No. 4
SIKOS T., Tamás (1987): Investigations of Social Infrastructure in Rural Settlements of
Borsod County
No. 5
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1987): Development of the Regional Management of the Economy in
East-Central Europe
No. 6
PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona (1988): Chance of Local Independence in Hungary
No. 7
FARAGÓ, László – HRUBI, László (1988): Development Possibilities of Backward Areas
in Hungary
No. 8
SZÖRÉNYINÉ KUKORELLI, Irén (1990): Role of the Accessibility in Development and
Functioning of Settlements
No. 9
ENYEDI, György (1990): New Basis for Regional and Urban Policies in East-Central
Europe
No. 10
RECHNITZER, János (1990): Regional Spread of Computer Technology in Hungary
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The State of the Info-communication
Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary
No. 11
SIKOS T., Tamás (1992): Types of Social Infrastructure in Hungary (to be not published)
No. 12
HORVÁTH, Gyula – HRUBI, László (1992): Restructuring and Regional Policy in
Hungary
No. 13
ERDİSI, Ferenc (1992): Transportation Effects on Spatial Structure of Hungary
No. 14
PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona (1992): The Basic Political and Structural Problems in the
Workings of Local Governments in Hungary
No. 15
PFEIL, Edit (1992): Local Governments and System Change. The Case of a Regional
Centre
No. 16
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1992): Culture and Urban Development (The Case of Pécs)
No. 17
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1993): Settlement Network Development Policy in Hungary in the Period
of State Socialism (1949–1985)
No. 18
KOVÁCS, Teréz (1993): Borderland Situation as It Is Seen by a Sociologist
No. 19
HRUBI, L. – KRAFTNÉ SOMOGYI, Gabriella (eds.) (1994): Small and medium-sized
firms and the role of private industry in Hungary
No. 20
BENKİNÉ Lodner, Dorottya (1995): The Legal-Administrative Questions of
Environmental Protection in the Republic of Hungary
No. 21 ENYEDI, György (1998): Transformation in Central European Postsocialist Cities
No. 22 HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1998): Changes in the Politico-Geographical Position of Hungary in the
20th Century
No. 23
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1998): Regional and Cohesion Policy in Hungary
No. 24
BUDAY-SÁNTHA, Attila (1998): Sustainable Agricultural Development in the Region of
the Lake Balaton
No. 25
LADOS, Mihály (1998): Future Perspective for Local Government Finance in Hungary
No. 26
NAGY, Erika (1999): Fall and Revival of City Centre Retailing: Planning an Urban
Function in Leicester, Britain
No. 27
BELUSZKY, Pál (1999): The Hungarian Urban Network at the End of the Second
Millennium
No. 28
RÁCZ, Lajos (1999): Climate History of Hungary Since the 16th Century: Past, Present and
Future
No. 29
RAVE, Simone (1999): Regional Development in Hungary and Its Preparation for the
Structural Funds
No. 30
BARTA, Györgyi (1999): Industrial Restructuring in the Budapest Agglomeration
No. 31
BARANYI, Béla–BALCSÓK, István–DANCS, László–MEZİ, Barna (1999): Borderland
Situation and Peripherality in the North-Eastern Part of the Great Hungarian Plain
No. 32
RECHNITZER, János (2000): The Features of the Transition of Hungary’s Regional
System
No. 33
MURÁNYI, István–PÉTER, Judit–SZARVÁK, Tibor–SZOBOSZLAI, Zsolt (2000): Civil
Organisations and Regional Identity in the South Hungarian Great Plain
No. 34
KOVÁCS, Teréz (2001): Rural Development in Hungary
No. 35
PÁLNÉ, Kovács Ilona (2001): Regional Development and Governance in Hungary
No. 36
NAGY, Imre (2001): Cross-Border Co-operation in the Border Region of the Southern
Great Plain of Hungary
No. 37
BELUSZKY, Pál (2002): The Spatial Differences of Modernisation in Hungary at the
Beginning of the 20th Century
No. 38
BARANYI, Béla (2002): Before Schengen – Ready for Schengen. Euroregional
Organisations and New Interregional Formations at the Eastern Borders of Hungary
No. 39
KERESZTÉLY, Krisztina (2002): The Role of the State in the Urban Development of
Budapest
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The State of the Info-communication
Markets in Dél-Alföld Region – Hungary
No. 40
HORVÁTH, Gyula (2002): Report on the Research Results of the Centre for Regional
Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
No. 41
SZIRMAI, Viktoria – A. GERGELY, András – BARÁTH, Gabriella–MOLNÁR, Balázs –
SZÉPVÖLGYI, Ákos (2003): The City and its Environment: Competition and/or Co-
operation? (A Hungarian Case Study)
No. 42
CSATÁRI, Bálint–KANALAS, Imre–NAGY, Gábor –SZARVÁK, Tibor (2004): Regions
in Information Society – a Hungarian Case-Study
No. 43
FARAGÓ, László (2004): The General Theory of Public (Spatial) Planning (The Social
Technique for Creating the Future)
No. 44
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (2004): Carpathian Basin and the Development of the Hungarian
Landscape Theory Until 1948
No. 45
GÁL, Zoltán (2004): Spatial Development and the Expanding European Integration of the
Hungarian Banking System
No. 46
BELUSZKY, Pál – GYİRI, Róbert (2005): The Hungarian Urban Network in the
Beginning of the 20th Century
No. 47
G. FEKETE, Éva (2005): Long-term Unemployment and Its Alleviation in Rural Areas
No. 48
SOMLYÓDYNÉ PFEIL, Edit (2006): Changes in The Organisational Framework of
Cooperation Within Urban Areas in Hungary
No. 49
MEZEI, István (2006): Chances of Hungarian–Slovak Cross-Border Relations
No. 50
RECHNITZER, János – SMAHÓ, Melinda (2006): Regional Characteristics of Human
Resources in Hungary During the Transition
No. 51
BARTA, Györgyi – BELUSZKY, Pál – CZIRFUSZ, Márton – GYİRI, Róbert –
KUKELY, György (2006): Rehabilitating the Brownfield Zones of Budapest
No. 52
GROSZ, András (2006): Clusterisation Processes in the Hungarian Automotive Industry
No. 53
FEKETE, G. Éva – HARGITAI, Judit – JÁSZ, Krisztina – SZARVÁK, Tibor –
SZOBOSZLAI, Zsolt (2006): Idealistic Vision or Reality? Life-long learning among
Romany ethnic groups
No. 54
BARTA, Györgyi (ed.) (2006): Hungary – the New Border of the European Union
No. 55
GÁL, Zoltán (2006): Banking Functions of the Hungarian Urban Network in the Early 20th
Century.
No. 56
SZÖRÉNYINÉ, Kukorelli Irén (2006): Relation Analysis in Rural Space – A Research
Method for Exploring the Spatial Structure in Hungary
No. 57
MAUREL, Marie-Claude – PÓLA, Péter (2007): Local System and Spatial Change – The
Case of Bóly in South Transdanubia
No. 58
SZIRMAI, Viktória (2007): The Social Characteristics of Hungarian Historic City Centres
No. 59
ERDİSI, Ferenc – GÁL, Zoltán – GIPP, Christoph – VARJÚ, Viktor (2007): Path
Dependency or Route Flexibility in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of
TWIST project
No. 60
PÓLA, Péter (2007): The Economic Chambers and the Enforcement of Local Economic
Interests
No. 61
BUDAY-SÁNTHA, Attila (2007): Development Issues of the Balaton Region
No. 62
LUX, Gábor (2008): Industrial Development, Public Policy and Spatial Differentiation in
Central Europe: Continuities and Change
No. 63
MEZEI, Cecília (2008): The Role of Hungarian Local Governments in Local Economic
Development
68