Discussion Papers 2007.
Regionality and/or Locality 161-168. p.
TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE DWELLINGS
IN POLAND AND HUNGARY AT THE BEGINNING
OF THE 21ST CENTURY
KONRAD CZAPIEWSKI
Introduction
Availability of infrastructure on definite areas conditions in a significant manner
the course of economic processes and shapes the living conditions of the inhabi-
tants. Thus, for instance, Ostrowski (1998, 11) maintains that technical and social
infrastructure “exerts a strong influence not only on the improvement of the living
conditions of the population, but also, indirectly, increases the attractiveness of the
respective areas for the domestic and foreign investors”. Similarly, Heffner (2001,
119) proposes that “expansion of the local infrastructural installations leads to the
decrease of costs borne by the investors locating their economic activity on the
rural areas and to the improvement of living conditions, which is also conducive to
new economic undertakings”. Technical infrastructure has a particularly high sig-
nificance in the development of rural areas, since it is on these areas that until now
large interregional differences are observed, as well as along the line town-country-
side. Zgliński (2001, 85) emphasises the necessity of “catching up for the historical
delays in the development of technical and social infrastructure in the countryside
for creation of conditions for the economic and civilizational development of the
rural areas”. Pięcek and Tryfan (1999, 7) perceive the problem in the same man-
ner, as they write that “the necessary condition for the improvement of the living
standard of the rural population is the development of infrastructure, understood
as the system of installations and institutions forming the foundations for the func-
tioning of the economy on a given area”. Even though the quotations here provided
refer mainly to Polish conditions, similar processes and statements remain valid for
the situation in Hungary.
The paper compares the spatial differentiation of the equipment of dwellings
with the basic elements of technical infrastructure in Poland and in Hungary. The
analyses were conducted on the lowest administrative level – NUTS 5 (gmina in
Poland and település in Hungary). All the data used in the study originate from the
Konrad Czapiewski :
Technical Infrastructure in the Dwellings in Poland and Hungary at the Beginning of the 21st Century.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 161-168. p. Discussion Papers, Special
162
KONRAD CZAPIEWSKI
main statistical offices, in case of Poland for the year 2003, and in case of Hungary
– for 2001.1
Equipment of the dwellings with technical infrastructure was described using
five features: water supply system, flush toilet, bathroom, central heating and gas
supply network.
General information on technical infrastructure in Poland
and in Hungary
During the 1990s in both Poland and Hungary a significant improvement took
place in the equipment of dwellings with basic elements of technical infrastructure.
This change is particularly perceptible on the rural areas, which during more than
40 years of the socialist system were specially neglected with this respect
(Czapiewski, 2004; Kovács, 2001). One of the basic reasons of the transformations
having taken place is certainly the increase of the decision-related independence of
the authorities of the lowest administrative units (Gorzelak–Jałowiecki, 1998;
Pálné Kovács, 2001; Swianiewicz, 2004).
The shares of the dwellings having access to water supply, and the water closet,
are in Poland and in Hungary similar, around 93% and 86%, respectively. Bigger
differences can be observed for the three other elements accounted for in the analy-
sis (Table 1). In Hungary, a bigger share of dwellings is equipped with gas supply
and a bathroom. On the other hand, in Poland ¾ of dwellings have central heating,
while in Hungary – only half of them.
All the five infrastructure elements accounted for in the analysis display high
degree of correlation among themselves. Both in Poland and in Hungary the linear
correlation coefficients between four of the respective variables (excluding gas
supply) take values, r from the interval 0.7–0.9, while the correlation coefficients
of access to gas supply network with the other four variables belong to the interval
0.4–0.5.
Table 1
Percentage shares of dwellings equipped with the basic elements of infrastructure
Water supply
Flush toilet
Bathroom
Central heating
Gas supply
Poland
95.0
87.3
86.1
77.1
55.4
Hungary
90.6
84.9
95.4
52.9
68.3
Source: Central Statistical Office of Poland and Hungarian Central Statistical Office.
1The author would like to thank Bálint Koós for the Hungarian data.
Konrad Czapiewski :
Technical Infrastructure in the Dwellings in Poland and Hungary at the Beginning of the 21st Century.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 161-168. p. Discussion Papers, Special
TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE DWELLINGS IN POLAND…
16
3
Spatial differentiation of the availability of infrastructure in Poland
and Hungary2
Water supply
In the western part of Poland one notices an almost complete saturation with access
to water supply networks, which is largely due to the historical past of these areas
(Fig. 1). Before the World War II this area belonged to Germany, and then, in the
socialist period the state ownership dominated in agriculture. Both these elements
were decisive for the more common access to water supply networks on these ar-
eas. Besides, this indicator attains higher values in the intensively urbanised areas
of Upper Silesia and the capital city of Warsaw, together with its suburban zone. In
case of Hungary the highest level of equipment of the dwellings with tap water is
noted in the north-western part of the country – starting with the border region with
Austria (Western Transdanubia), through the surroundings of the Lake Balaton
(Central Transdanubia), and ending with Budapest and its suburban zone (Central
Hungary). The presence of infrastructure is much worse in the poorer regions of the
country – first of all in its south-eastern part. These areas feature high degree of
rurality (Csatári, 2005) and high significance of farming in local economy and in
the employment structure.
Flush toilets
The spatial differentiation of the shares of dwellings equipped with flush toilet
is a natural consequence of the spatial differentiation of the share of dwellings con-
nected to the water supply networks. According to Kovács (2004) the coefficient of
the presence of the flush toilet in the dwellings is a good measure for showing the
increase of regional disparities in the settlement system and describes well, in
qualitative terms, the state of housing. Very high value of this indicator in the
north-eastern part of Hungary illustrates the highly intensive process of modernisa-
tion of the dwelling stock in these regions, while low values of the indicator in
other regions of the country demonstrates large delays in this respect (Kovács,
2004). In the case of Poland modernisation of dwellings took place to a large extent
on the eastern territories of the country, with, however, low rate of sewage system
access remaining a significant problem there. The municipal self-governmental
authorities invested during the 1990s first of all into the improvement of water
supply network, but currently, an increase in investment into sewage systems is
2When comparing the spatial differentiation of the availability of basic elements of technical
infrastructure in the dwellings in Poland and Hungary, the same scale of differentiation was applied
in constructing the choropleth map. The scale of the map itself for Hungary is 1.5 times bigger than
for Poland.
Konrad Czapiewski :
Technical Infrastructure in the Dwellings in Poland and Hungary at the Beginning of the 21st Century.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 161-168. p. Discussion Papers, Special
164
KONRAD CZAPIEWSKI
visible. In connection with this, a significant decrease of the interregional differ-
ences in the equipment of dwellings with flush toilet is expected in the near future.
Bathroom
The spatial differentiation of the shares of dwellings equipped with bathroom is
influenced by the similar factors as those mentioned before (Figure 1). The fact of
owning a bathroom is to a large extent linked with being connected to the water
supply and sewage systems. In Poland, there is a distinct and important differentia-
tion between the rural areas of the central and eastern parts of Poland, and the
towns there situated. The reasons should be sought in the much higher costs of
connecting the dispersed houses in the countryside than the compact housing es-
tates of high-rise buildings in towns.
Figure 1
Percentage shares of dwellings connected to water supply network and percentage
shares of dwellings with bathroom in Poland and Hungary
Source: Central Statistical Office of Poland and Hungarian Central Statistical Office
Konrad Czapiewski :
Technical Infrastructure in the Dwellings in Poland and Hungary at the Beginning of the 21st Century.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 161-168. p. Discussion Papers, Special
TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE DWELLINGS IN POLAND…
16
5
Thus, unit costs borne in the case of projects in the countryside are much higher
than in towns and pay back in a much longer time period. In Hungary, a particu-
larly high share of dwellings with a bathroom is observed within the metropolitan
area of Budapest and in the area of very intensive tourist penetration around the
Lake Balaton. On the other hand, in Ormánság – one of the poorest regions of
Hungary, located to the South of Pécs – very low values of the indicator in question
are noted.
Central heating
Dwellings in Poland are much more frequently connected to central heating
systems than this is the case with Hungary (Figure 2). This results from several
characteristics of the settlement network and the structure of housing in the two
countries. The settlement network in Hungary is much sparser than in Poland and a
very characteristic element of the Hungarian landscape is constituted by the single
isolated farms (tonyo). In an obvious manner, this makes impossible connecting
such buildings to the central heating network and causes that the farm owners con-
struct, instead, individual heating systems. On the other hand, in Poland, due to
collectivisation of farming, in the western and northern parts of the country the
settlements of the State Farms appeared in the form of clusters of several two-and
three-storey housing blocks heated by their own boiler houses. The domination of
the private farming in eastern Poland was expressed by the much lower values of
the indicator in question over these areas. Towns in both countries are character-
ised by the decidedly highest values of percentage shares of dwellings connected to
the central heating networks.
Gas supply
Spatial differentiation of the percentage shares of dwellings equipped with gas
supply installations shows the biggest distinction with respect to the remaining
four, previously described, elements of technical infrastructure. Despite the fact
that the number of customers of gas networks in Poland on the rural areas increased
during the 1990s by almost the factor of two and a half, it still remains a very low
level. Currently, only 5% of inhabitants of rural areas in Poland use gas supplied
from the networks. Their highest percentage share is observed in south-eastern
Poland (the region of Małopolska), and is associated with the important deposits of
natural gas situated at the foothills of the Carpathians3 (Figure 2). Besides, it is
common that apartments in towns are connected to the gas supply networks, this
fact being largely due to the previously mentioned issue of installation costs. In the
case of Hungary one notices that the general level of access to the gas supply net-
3It is exactly in this area that in the middle of the 19th century Polish scholar Ignacy Łukasiewicz
opened up the first oil rig in the world.
Konrad Czapiewski :
Technical Infrastructure in the Dwellings in Poland and Hungary at the Beginning of the 21st Century.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 161-168. p. Discussion Papers, Special
166
KONRAD CZAPIEWSKI
works is much higher than in Poland. Only in the south-western part of the country
lower values of this indicator are observed. In Poland, there are 40% of the admin-
istrative units considered, in which there is no access to gas supply networks, while
in Hungary this concerns only 20% of municipalities.
Figure 2
Percentage shares of dwellings with central heating and percentage shares
of dwellings connected to gas supply network in Poland and Hungary
Source: Central Statistical Office of Poland and Hungarian Central Statistical Office.
Summary and conclusions
The spatial differentiation of the equipment with infrastructure in Poland and in
Hungary displays a high degree of correlation with the level of economic develop-
ment in these countries. In Poland, the highest level of economic development is
observed in large cities and their respective agglomerations (Warsaw, Poznań, Cra-
Konrad Czapiewski :
Technical Infrastructure in the Dwellings in Poland and Hungary at the Beginning of the 21st Century.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 161-168. p. Discussion Papers, Special
TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE DWELLINGS IN POLAND…
16
7
cow, Lodz, Tri-city, towns of Upper Silesia). The areas, featuring the highest de-
velopment indicator values are usually surrounded by a ring of slightly less devel-
oped municipalities, and farther away the areas characterised by the lowest level of
economic development are situated (Bański, 2005). Towns concentrate nowadays
the biggest development potential and fulfil, or rather should fulfil, the exogenous
functions for the surrounding areas. Such a situation, though, does not always take
place. In the case of large urban agglomerations one can indicate the suburban
zones, generated by them, displaying high potential. Yet, smaller units, and first of
all towns located in the eastern part of the country, are not strong enough to stimu-
late growth within the neighbouring areas. The areas with well developed tourist
function feature a high development potential, as well, like the seacoast belt, the
lake districts, and some of the mountain areas in the South of the country
(Czapiewski–Janc, 2006). In the case of Hungary the level of development in the
eastern and southern parts of the country remains significantly below the national
average. Except for a couple of areas, which are more urbanised, poor transport-
wise accessibility, long-term unemployment and domination of farming in local
economy bring about serious social and economic conflicts. The most developed
areas, which, in addition, strengthened their position during the 1990s, are, in gen-
eral, those in the north-western Hungary, and in particular – the suburban zone of
Budapest and the surroundings of the Lake Balaton (Csatári, 2005; Nagy, 2005).
The inhabitants of the north-western Hungary gain also highest incomes from their
work. This situation is associated with the qualitative aspects of employment – in
the North the inhabitants hold largely posts in the highly specialised companies,
while in the South they find employment in farming and in trade (Kovács, 2004).
Strong interdependence between the values of the indicator of equipment of
dwellings with the basic elements of technical infrastructure and the indicators
determining the level of socio-economic development, is linked with the functional
structure of the territories of Poland and Hungary. Eastern regions of both countries
have agricultural character, which finds a reflection in the lower incomes of the
inhabitants and the incapacity of making the necessary infrastructure investments
in own dwellings, as well as in the lower revenues of the self-governmental bodies,
which, in turn, entails the shortage of means for the expansion of the municipal
infrastructural installations. Besides, the results obtained are simultaneously asso-
ciated with the settlement structures of the two countries, the age structure, and the
high percentage share of the Roma minority in eastern Hungary. On the other hand,
the contemporary processes, which change in a significant manner the image of
spatial differentiation with respect to the equipment in infrastructure at the begin-
ning of the 21st century, include the programmes of the European Union. They
allow for the reduction of the own contribution of the self-governmental bodies in
the construction of infrastructural installations. Yet, in the nearest future, the level
of socio-economic development will continue to influence in a significant degree
Konrad Czapiewski :
Technical Infrastructure in the Dwellings in Poland and Hungary at the Beginning of the 21st Century.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 161-168. p. Discussion Papers, Special
168
KONRAD CZAPIEWSKI
the level of equipment with infrastructural installations. This will remain particu-
larly true for these elements of infrastructure, which have not been very common
on the rural areas of Poland and Hungary until now, such as central heating and gas
supply networks.
References
Bański, J. 2005: Sukces gospodarczy na obszarach wiejskich [Economic success in rural areas; in
Polish]. In Głębocki, B.– Kaczmarek, U. (eds.): Obszary sukcesu na polskiej wsi, Studia
Obszarów Wiejskich, 8, PTG, IGiPZ PAN, Warszawa, 9–20.
Csatári, B. 205: Major changes in the Hungarian micro-regions. In Floriańczyk, Z.–Czapiewski, K.
(eds.): Rural Development Capacity in Carpathian Europe. Warsaw, European Rural
Development Network. 79–94. p. (Rural Areas and Development, 3.).
Czapiewski, K. 2004: Zmiany warunków Ŝycia ludności wiejskiej [Changes in living conditions of
the rural population; in Polish]. In Bański, J. (eds.): Polska przestrzeń wiejska: procesy i
perspektywy, Studia Obszarów Wiejskich, 6, PTG, IGiPZ PAN, Warszawa, 89–111.
Czapiewski, K.–Janc, K. 2006: Development potential of Polish regions, Проблеми на Географията
(Problems of Geography), 1–2, 91–104.
Gorzelak G.–Jałowiecki B. (eds.) 1998: Koniunktura gospodarcza i mobilizacja społeczna w gminach
(Business conditions and social mobilisation in communes; in Polish) Studia Regionalne i
Lokalne. 25(58). UW, Warszawa.
Heffner, K. 2001: Transformacja układów osadniczych wsi a wielofunkcyjny rozwój obszarów
wiejskich [Transformation of the settlement patterns of the countryside and the multi-functional
development of rural areas; in Polish]. In Bukraba, I.–Rylska, A. Rosner (eds.): Wieś i rolnictwo
na przełomie wieków. Warszawa, IRWiR PAN. 109–132.
Kovács, T. 2001: Rural Development in Hungary. Pécs, Centre for Regional Studies. 43 p.
(Discussion Papers, 34.).
Kovács, Z. 2004: Socio-economic transition and regional differentiation in Hungary. Földrajzi
Értesítı [Geographical Bulletin], LIII, 1–2, 33–49.
Nagy, G. 2005: Changes in the position of Hungarian regions in the country’s economic field of
gravity. In: Barta, Gy.–G. Fekete, É.–Kukorelli Szörényiné, I.–Timár, J. (eds.): Hungarian Spaces
and Places: Patterns of Transition. Pécs, Centre for Regional Studies. 124–142. p.
Ostrowski, L. 1998: Społeczna i techniczna infrastruktura na terenach wiejskich oraz źródła jej
finansowania w świetle ankiety IERiGś z 1996 roku (Social and technical infrastructure on rural
areas and the sources of its financing in the light of the IAFE survey of 1996; in Polish) IERiGś,
Warszawa.
Pálné Kovács, I. 2001: Regional Development and Governance in Hungary. Pécs, Centre for Regional
Studies. 41 p. (Discussion Papers, 35.).
Pięcek, B.–Tryfan, B. 1999: Wstęp [Introduction; in Polish]. In: Pięcek, B. (ed.): Wpływ
infrastruktury wiejskiej na stopę Ŝyciową mieszkańców. Warszawa, IRWiR PAN. 7–12.
Swianiewicz, P. (ed.) 2004: Local Government Borrowing: Risks and Rewards. Budapest, Open
Society Institute.
Zgliński, W. 2001: Wizje, koncepcje, strategie rozwoju obszarów wiejskich i rolnictwa w Polsce
(Visions, concepts, strategies of development for the rural areas and agriculture in Poland; in
Polish) [in:] J. Bański (ed.) Wieś i rolnictwo u progu Unii Europejskiej, Studia Obszarów
Wiejskich, 1, PTG, IGiPZ PAN, Warszawa, 85–98.