Discussion Papers 2007.
Regionality and/or Locality 89-103. p.
EXTERNAL BORDER OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
– PERMEABILITY, CO-OPERATION, PERSPECTIVES
TOMASZ KOMORNICKI
Introduction
The existence of a boundary (the barrier effect) disturbs the magnitude of goods or
passenger  flows  (as  well  as  the  flow  of  information  and  innovation  diffusion),
which is expected on the basis of the gravity models of trade (conform to the nor-
mal  resistance  from  distance).  The  regression  line,  representing  the  intensity  of
interaction along distance, breaks down and drops at the distance corresponding to
a political frontier. It was shown that this breakdown persists also on the bounda-
ries featuring very high degree of permeability (e.g. on the internal boundaries of
the  European  Union,  Rietveld  P,  2001),  and  even  between  some  administrative
units of a lower order (Lowe–Moryadas, 1975).
After the Union enlargement in 2004 the number and the length of the border
segments between the European Union and the third countries (not associated and
waiting  for  accession)  increased  abruptly.  Until  then  such  a  situation  had  existed
only on the thinly populated areas of Scandinavia. Now the boundary with Russia,
Belarus’,  Ukraine,  Moldova,  Turkey,  Albania,  Macedonia,  Serbia  and  Croatia
crosses  the  entire  continent  from  the  Baltic  Sea  down  to  the  Black  Sea  and  sur-
round  the  former  Yugoslavia.  This  process  brings  about  polarisation  of  the  Euro-
pean  border  regime  systems.  To  an  increasing  degree  the  weakly  formalised  bor-
ders (or the practically nonexistent ones) start to dominate in a pronounced manner
inside the Union, and the highly formalised ones (with the visa requirement for the
direct neighbours being the rule) on the outer fringes of the Union.
The purpose of the present report is to assess the effects from the strengthening
of the function of border segments, which became an outer boundary of the Euro-
pean  Union.  These  effects  will  be  analysed  on  the  example  of  the  Polish  eastern
boundary. Analysis will be performed for the international economic linkages, and
precisely  –  for  the  intensity  and  the  structure  of  international  trade  of  the  border
regions,  as  well as transboundary  flows  of  persons  and  goods.1  Four  Polish  prov-

1The paper is partly based on the results of ESPON 1.4.4. Project (Study on Feasibility on
Flows Analysis). The Project was leaded by Spiekermann & Wegener Urban and Regional
Research  (S&W;  Dortmund)  with  two  partners:  Institute  of  Geography  and  Spatial
Organization Polish Academy of Sciences (IGSO OAS: Warsaw) and Transportation and
Territory (TRT; Torino).

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90
TOMASZ KOMORNICKI
inces  adjacent  to  the  eastern  boundary  will  be  treated  as  the  border  regions  (the
province  of  Warmińsko-mazurskie  –  bordering  upon  the  Kaliningrad  district  of
Russia; province of Podlaskie – bordering upon Belarus’; province of Lubelskie –
border  with  Belarus’  and  Ukraine;  and  the  Podkarpackie  province  –  border  with
Ukraine).
The database used in the paper are matrices for the years 2000 and 2005 cover-
ing 379 “poviats” (counties – LAU 2) versus all European countries. Figures com-
prising  the  amount  of  import  and  export  are  given  for  each  relation  and  are  ex-
pressed  in  US  dollars  based  on  information  from  SAD  (Single  Administrative
Document) and INTRASTAT. The SAD forms constitute a complete basis encom-
passing  the  entire  trade  with  the  countries  outside  of  the  European  Union.  The
ITRASTAT  system  is  founded  on  the  reporting  from  the  companies  conducting
foreign trade. In accordance with the information obtained in the Polish Ministry of
Finance, in Polish conditions the system includes 90% of the entire trade with the
remaining 24 member countries of the Union. This brings about certain constraints
in  terms  of  comparability  of  the  data  from  the  years  2000  and  2005.  In  2000  the
entire Polish trade was registered on the basis of SAD. In the case of border traffic
the main data source was is the Polish Border Guard database. It contains the num-
ber of passengers and heavy goods vehicles and distinguishes for passenger trans-
port  between  Polish  citizens  and  foreigners  crossing  all  Polish  border  crossings.
The data allow to analyse the dynamics of cross-border movements as it covers the
years 1990 to 2005.
On  the  basis  of  the  dynamic  analysis  of  economic  linkages  the  conclusions
have  been  formulated  both  concerning  the  observed  spatial  consequences  of  the
broadening  of  the  European  Union  for  the  areas  situated  at  its  outer  border,  and
related to the perspectives in this respect.
Eastern Poland in the system of international economic linkages
The  analysis  of  the  spatial  distribution  of  international  economic  linkages  shows
the extent, to which individual regions, and even towns, have become the elements
of the European economic space. The image obtained is therefore a kind of meas-
ure  of  the  true  spatial  economic  integration.  Consideration  of  dynamics  with  re-
spect  to  the  dispersion  of  international  trade  connections  among  smaller  centres
may  be  treated  as  an  indirect  measure  of  the  effect  of  cohesion  policy  (ESPON
1.4.4. Final report, www.espon.eu). In addition, the shares of particular partners in
the export of local administrative units allow, in particular, for the delimitation of
the  zones  of  strong  interactions  with  the  neighbouring  countries.  Thereby,  they
become the measure of the local integration potential of the border regions. Identi-
fication of the main directions of the socio-economic connections of regions has, as

Tomasz Komornicki : External Border of the European Union - Permeability, Co-operation, Perspectives.
In:Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 89-103. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
EXTERNAL BORDER OF THE EUROPEAN UNION – PERMEABILITY…
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1
well, a concrete application value. Their knowledge may be helpful in the conduct
of policies related to transport, education and promotion (territorial marketing), and
also in the field of use of the European assistance means. The spatially referenced
economic interactions may be to some extent identified with demand for transport
infrastructure.
In the year 2000 Poland was characterised by a very uneven regional breakdown
when it comes to exports (see Figure 1). These mainly derived from Warsaw and
the western part of the country, in which almost all poviats (counties) participated
in  trade.  In  contrast,  in  eastern  Poland,  trade  was  concentrated  almost  uniquely
within the largest centres. The main areas of the absolute concentration of exports
nationwide were: (a) the Warsaw agglomeration, (b) certain urban areas in Upper
Silesia,  (c)  the  Legnica-Głogów  copper-mining  district,  (d)  other  large  urban  and
industrial agglomerations, above all that of Poznań, and (e) selected smaller centres
in which modern industrial plants are located (mainly with foreign capital playing a
role). An even larger concentration is to be noted for imports.
There was a stronger export orientation of industry in western and northwestern
Poland,  and,  to  a  somewhat  lesser  degree,  also  in  southeastern  Poland.  It  can  be
supposed, as well, that the low level of export in the East was linked with the gen-
erally  lower  production  level,  while  in  some  regions  of  central  Poland  it  was  the
effect of production mainly for the domestic market (Komornicki, 2003).
The regional distribution of the main export centres in the year 2005 (after the
enlargement  of  the  European  Union)  remained  almost  unchanged  (Figure  1).  A
distinct diffusion of the export activity into the more peripheral areas could be ob-
served,  though,  especially  in  central  and  southeastern  Poland.  A  very  distinct  in-
crease  of  export  was  noted  in  the  areas  of  functioning  of  the  special  economic
zones (particularly so for the zones of Wałbrzych, Mielec and Gliwice (Figure 2).
The global value of export decreased only in few counties. The increase, however,
was  generally  somewhat  higher  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  country,  and  relatively
lower  on  the  areas,  which  had  already  before  had  strong  international  economic
connections.
In case of import the analogous phenomenon of de-concentration appeared to a
much  lower  degree.  The  increase  was  proportional  in  the  biggest  import  centres.
There was a slight reduction in this context of the role of Poznań, while the signifi-
cance  of  the  Tri-City  (Gdańsk–Sopot–Gdynia),  Wrocław  and  Cracow  increased.
Again,  some  of  the  special  economic  zones  (first  of  all  the  one  of  Wałbrzych)
turned out to be perceptible. In several dozen peripheral counties the value of im-
ports decreased (Figure 3). This value increased very intensively in Lower Silesia,
and  in the  eastern regions of  Lubelskie and  Podlaskie.  Both  in  the  case  of  export
and  of  import  North-western  Poland  turned  out  to  be  the  region  featuring  a  rela-
tively weaker dynamics. This significance of international trade for this region was
high already in 2000.

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TOMASZ KOMORNICKI
Figure 3
Change of the import value in the years 2000–2005 (2000=100)

Source: Own elaboration based on Polish Ministry of Finance materials;
prepared for ESPON 1.4.4 Final Report.
The  importance  of  the  Union  in  exports  decreased  gradually  towards  the  East
(dropping to below 50% to the East of Vistula and to even less than 25% within the
eastern borderland), to the advantage of the increased share of export to the coun-
tries of the former USSR. The spatial differentiation of the shares of the European
Union in the value of imported goods was, on the other hand, much smaller. This
share was generally high also in eastern Poland, except for the border counties. In
2005  there  was  a  distinct  increase  of  the  significance  of  export  connections  with
the European Union in eastern Poland.
This took place both owing to the general increase of the export value, and ow-
ing to the enlargement of the Union itself (some eastern regions concentrated trade
with  such  countries  as  Lithuania,  Slovakia  and  Hungary,  now  EU  member  coun-
tries). The increase of exports to the EU countries was in relative terms the highest
in the East. At the same time, western Poland opened up to a greater extent to trade

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In:Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 89-103. p.
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EXTERNAL BORDER OF THE EUROPEAN UNION – PERMEABILITY…
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5
with the third countries. Thereby, a partial evening out of the disproportions in the
trade  structure  between  the  eastern  and  the  western  halves  of  the  country  took
place.
Yet  in  2000  the  four  analyzed  eastern  provinces  were  the  location  of  very
strong concentration of export to the directly neighboring countries. This applied,
in  a  particular  manner,  to  the  export  to  Ukraine,  which  was  concentrated  in  the
Lubelskie  and  Podkarpackie  provinces.  The  reasons  for  such  a  state  of  things
should be sought in the lower quality requirements from the side of the Ukrainian
or  Belorussian  market.  Numerous  small  businessmen  from  eastern  Poland  could
not stand the challenge of the European Union market competition, while their not
always  quite  modern  products  can  still  be  sold  in  the  East.  A  part  of  the  effect
ought also to be attributed to the location in the vicinity of the border of the com-
panies dealing with re-exporting of goods having been imported to Poland before
(Ukraine imports from Poland, in particular, coffee and bananas). The real signifi-
cance  of  the  trade  with  Ukraine,  Belarus  and  Russia  was  even  bigger  within  the
confines of the borderland in view of the still functioning unregistered trade.
In  the  years  2000–2005  there  has  been,  however,  a  decrease  of  export  to
Ukraine exactly from the area of the borderland (the provinces of Lublin and Pod-
karpackie voivodship). Introduction of visas for the eastern neighbouring countries
in October 2003 could have constituted also a factor limiting the local contacts of
the smallest businesses. On the other hand, though, there was a very strong increase
on the remaining areas, first of all in western Poland (Lower Silesia, Wielkopolska)
and partly in northern Poland. In  many units there located the value of export in-
creased there more than ten times over (e.g. in Gliwice, Olsztyn and in the counties
near Wrocław). The increase exceeded 500% also in Warsaw, Opole and Gdynia.
In  the  year  2000  the  territory  of  the  eastern  border  provinces  of  Poland  ac-
counted  for  only  10.4%  of  total  Polish  exports  (of  which  4%  originated  from  the
Podkarpackie  province).  The  share  of  the  same  provinces  in  the  value  of  imports
was at the mere 4.8%. These ratios did not correspond to the share of the provinces
in question in terms of population. Thus, the value of exports per capita was on this
area  among  the  lowest  in  Poland  (only  338  USD  in  Podlaskie  and  342  USD  in
Lubelskie  provinces,  while  the  average  for  the  country  was  817  USD).  Situation
was similar in case of imports (only 245 USD per capita in the Lubelskie province
– compared to 1265 USD for the country as a whole – the lowest value among all
provinces). The share of EU15 in export value was there also among the lowest in
Poland  and  amounted  to  just  53%  in  the  province  of  Podlaskie,  and  to  54.7%  in
Lubelskie province (70.1% for Poland as a whole). The most important trade part-
ner was Germany, but its share in the volume of trade was distinctly lower than in
the case of other regions. In terms of imports the share of the European Union was,
except  for  the  province  of  Podlaskie,  higher  than  on  the  average  in  the  country.
This, however, was a typical situation for the majority of provinces, to which the

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TOMASZ KOMORNICKI
raw materials imported from other directions would not come (this being especially
visible for fuels).
In the period 2000–2005 the value of export from the four provinces analysed
increased more than threefold, from 2.3 billion USD to more than 7.3 billion USD.
Simultaneously, though, the share of this area in the total value of exports dropped
to 8.5%. Hence, the dynamics of increase was lower than on the average in Poland.
In  the  case  of  imports, despite  the  increase  of  the  absolute  value, from  2.3  to  4.8
billion USD, the share of the four provinces in total imports remained constant, at
4.8%.  The  share  of  export  towards  the  territory  of  the  European  Union  increased
mainly owing to the Union’s extension, yet in all the analysed provinces – except
for Warmińsko-mazurskie – it remained lower than the national average. The pro-
portion  of  goods  exported  to  the  “old”  member  countries  increased  in  Podlaskie
and  Warmińsko-mazurskie,  but  it  clearly  dropped  in  Lublin  and  Subcarpathian
provinces.  The  overall  significance  of  the  Union  in  export  remained  distinctly
lower than on the average in the country, although the difference was already much
smaller  than  in  2000.  In  the  group  of  the  western  European  countries  Germany
preserved  its  domination  and  a  close  to  20%  share  in  export.  The  significance  of
Italy  decreased  somewhat,  while  position  of  France  was  maintained.  There  was,
however, an abrupt drop in the role of Ukraine. Only in the province of Lubelskie
there was a drop from close to 20% in the year 2000 to just 7.7% in 2005. Export
from this province to the immediate neighbour decreased even in absolute numbers
(from 135 to 119 million USD). At the same time, in the very province, there was a
surprisingly high increase of export to Belarus’, from the mere 18 million USD in
2000 to 70 million in 2005.
The share of the European Union in import decreased, and this even with con-
sideration of imports from the new member countries (except for Warmińsko-ma-
zurskie). For the area of the EU from before 2004 the decrease amounted to close
to 12 percentage points in the Lubelskie province, and to as much as 24 percentage
points in the Podkarpackie province.
Border traffic
In the period 1990–1997 the passenger cross-border traffic (in both directions) in-
creased in Poland from 84.2 million to 273.9 million persons (Komornicki, 1999).
This increase was followed by a stagnation, and in the years 2000 and 2001 a de-
crease  was  observed.  The  traffic  was  dominated  by  the  persons  doing  their  shop-
ping in Poland. In 2003 altogether 181 million persons crossed the borders in both
directions. In 2004, though, there was anew an increase, associated with the acces-
sion to the European Union. This increase took place across all the border segments
except for those with Russia and Belarus’. On the majority of the border segments

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EXTERNAL BORDER OF THE EUROPEAN UNION – PERMEABILITY…
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7
it  is  the  foreigners  that  cross  the  borders  predominantly.  The  difference  in  these
terms is decidedly the most pronounced on the local Polish-German border cross-
ings  (neighbouring  upon  the  bazaars,  like  Łęknica),  and  also  on  the  borders  with
Belarus’ and Ukraine. There are border crossings on the eastern borders, where the
share of Polish citizens in crossing the boundary does not exceed 5%. Poles domi-
nate,  on  the  other  hand,  among  those  registered  at  the  airports  and  on  the  Czech
and Slovak borders.
The analysis of the intensity of traffic in the period of 24 months (September
2002 – August 2004) allows concluding that there is a characteristic seasonal cycle
with a distinct summer maximum and a drop in the winter months (see Figure 4).
This cycle was disturbed by a breakdown associated with introduction of visas on
October  1,  2003. The  delay,  after  which the  fluctuations  of traffic returned to the
earlier rhythm was, however, quite short. Already in December 2003, the intensity
of border traffic corresponded to the level from the preceding year. This was partly
due to the increase in the travels of Polish citizens (occurring exactly just after the
introduction of visas – perhaps denoting the temporary takeover of a part of trade
activity from the Ukrainians).
In 2005 there was a dramatic increase in the share of Polish citizens in the bor-
der traffic. This should be first of all linked with the increase of the fuel prices in
Poland, which motivated the inhabitants of the border regions to fuelling their ve-
hicles in Ukraine. Another factor may be constituted by the  more rigorous proce-
dures, applied by the Polish Border Guards with respect to the citizens of Ukraine.
Even though they may have a visa they happen to be returned away from the bor-
der due to the suspicion of having the intention of taking up an illegal job in Po-
land. Such situations had as a rule not been taking place in the preceding years.
The dynamic increase of the intensity of HGV traffic lasted over the entire dec-
ade and continues nowadays. In 1980 all of the Polish borders were crossed in both
directions by altogether 295,000 HGV, by 1990 this number increased to 1.1 mil-
lion, and by 2003 to close to 6.2 million. During the entire decade the dominating
role was played by the lorry traffic across the Polish-German border. On the east-
ern  side  after  1998  the  border  crossing  in  Kukuryki  was  no  longer  the  one  most
loaded with cargo traffic (see Figure 5). Currently, the decisively biggest intensity
of truck traffic is observed in Budzisko on the Lithuanian border. The role of the
Polish-Ukrainian  crossings  has  relatively  increased  in  these  terms,  as  well,  espe-
cially of the crossing point in Dorohusk (Warsaw–Kiev highway).
The traffic of trucks across the Polish eastern border had been increasing inces-
santly since the collapse of the Soviet Union (the years 1990–1992) until the year
1997. In the years 1998–1999 there was a short-lived breakdown, associated with
the so-called Russian crisis, and then further rapid intensification. The breakdown
of the year 1998 was clearly smaller on the Ukrainian than on the Belarusian bor-
der.  The  period  of  regress  was,  on  the  other  hand,  much  longer  for  the  vehicles

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TOMASZ KOMORNICKI
with Polish registration plates than for the foreign registrations (Ukrainian, but also
Russian,  Romanian  and  Bulgarian  in  the  transit  traffic).  The  number  of  Polish
trucks  crossing  the  Ukrainian  border  exceeded  only  in  2002  the  level  from  1996.
After  2002,  however,  the  increase  in  this  group  was  more  dynamic  than  for  the
foreign trucks. It should be remembered, though, that the distinction into the vehi-
cles with Polish and foreign registration is not fully precise. In practice, namely a
vehicle registered in one country may belong to a company from another country,
and the driver may be the citizen of yet another country.
The dynamics  of  traffic  growth  (especially  on  the  Ukrainian  border)  exceeded
the  dynamics  of  foreign  trade,  which  is  an  evidence  of  both  high  share  of  transit
traffic, and of the gradual increase of the share taken in Polish foreign trade by the
road transport. On the eastern border, after 1998, the crossing in Kukuryki ceased
to be the most intensively used one in cargo traffic. Currently, cargo traffic is de-
cidedly more intensive at the crossing in Budzisko on the Lithuanian border.
Figure 4
Passenger traffic at the Polish Eastern border
(September 2002 – August 2004)
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
wrz- paź-
lis-
gru-
sty-
lut-
mar- kwi- maj- cze-
lip-
sie-
wrz- paź-
lis-
gru-
sty-
lut-
mar- kwi- maj- cze-
lip-
sie-
02
02
02
02
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
03
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
04
Russian
Lithuanian
Belarusian
Ukrainian

Source: Author’s elaboration based on the unpublished Border Guard materials; prepared  for Espon
1.4.4., Final Report, 2007

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TOMASZ KOMORNICKI
There was also a relative increase of the role, in this respect, of the Polish–Ukrain-
ian  border  crossings,  especially  the  one  in  Dorohusk.  The  direction  Dorohusk–
Lublin–Warsaw–Berlin has been in the years 1995–2004 the main direction of the
Ukrainian transit to Western Europe. After 2004 the traffic of trucks in Dorohusk
stabilised.  The  increase  of  the  traffic  of  heavy  goods  vehicles  in  the  years  2004–
2005 took place first of all at the border crossing of Korczowa along the direction
of  E–40  route  (Dresden–Cracow–L’viv).  In  the  previous  years  the  biggest  goods
flows were observed along the direction of Kiev-Warsaw-Berlin. The change may
be  caused  by  a  relative  advance  of  the  construction  of  the  Polish  motorway  A–4
(the  segment  between  Cracow  and  Bolesławiec,  some  40  km  from  the  German
border).
Summing up, it should be stated that the cross-border traffic of trucks in eastern
Poland is  to  a  large  extent  the  transit  traffic.  Yet, there  exists  an interrelation  be-
tween  the  setting  of  the  transit  roads  and  the  location  of  towns  conducting  trade
with Ukraine and Belarus’. This concerns first of all the towns (counties) situated
directly at the border crossing, namely – Przemyśl, Chełm and Tomaszów Lubelski
on the Ukrainian direction and Biała Podlaska on the Belarusian.
In the period of 24 months, here analysed in detail (September 2002 – August
2004), HGV traffic was subject to standard seasonal oscillations with a clear peak
at the end of the calendar years and even more pronounced minimum in January.
The influence of the introduction of visas for Ukrainians on the intensity of traffic
is  not  perceptible.  The  spring  increase  in  2004  was  observed  earlier  than  in  the
preceding year, which allows to assume that either the accession of Poland to the
European Union had no influence on the magnitude of traffic, or this impact could
be  positive.  In  these terms  the  situation  is  different  from  the  one  observed on the
Belarusian border, where a decrease of traffic was observed in May 2004.
Summary
Altogether, it can be admitted that the international economic links of the eastern
border  areas,  two  years  after  the  extension  of  the  European  Union,  are  character-
ised by the following properties:
−  Lower  than  the  national  average  intensity  of  the  official  economic  connec-
tions,
−  Relatively high, although decreasing, diversification of the foreign partners,
−  High  increase  and  moderate  de-concentration  of  the  trade  activity  after  the
accession of Poland to the European Union,
−  Strong, although quickly decreasing concentration of export connections with
Ukraine (Lubelskie and Podkarpackie provinces),

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EXTERNAL BORDER OF THE EUROPEAN UNION – PERMEABILITY…
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−  Average and even more quickly decreasing concentration of connections with
Belarus’ and Russia (Podlaskie, Warmińsko-mazurskie),
−  Increasing  trade  significance  of  the  EU  partners  from  other  new  member
countries,
−  Slowly increasing role of eastern partners in import,
−  Concentration of connections with intensity exceeding the national average in
only few centres,
−  Marginal share in foreign trade of the counties situated directly at the border
(except for the units surrounding the cargo border crossings),
−  Increasing significance of the transit location with respect to Lithuania and
Ukraine, and a stable role in this context with respect to Belarus’ and Russia.
The  analysis conducted  leads  also to  the  general  conclusion that  the  effects  of
accession to the European Union were unequivocally positive for the economies of
the provinces studied. This is demonstrated by the intensification of export to the
so-called  “demanding  markets”  with  simultaneous  slowdown  of  the  upward  ten-
dency in the domain of the share in import from Western Europe. At the same time,
however,  comparison  with  other  regions  of  the  country  proves  that  the  potential
associated with accession has been used in the East to a relatively smaller degree.
The  beneficiaries  of  the  advantages  accruing  from  the  accession  have  become
mainly the large enterprises, existing already before on the European market. The
effect  of  creation  of  new  connections  has  not  appeared  in  the  small  and  medium
enterprises, located in the counties having earlier weak international connections.
The analysed provinces of Eastern Poland play to an increasing degree the su-
pra-regional  and  international  functions.  Their  development  requires,  therefore,
better infrastructural connections with central Poland and farther – with the inside
of the European Union. Still, in the provincial development strategies and in other
planning  documents  the  development  opportunities  are  seen  primarily  in  the  ser-
vicing of transit and in local transboundary co-operation. The external costs of the
heavy  road  traffic  in  transit  (environmental  and  linked  with  the  consequences  of
road  accidents)  nullify,  namely,  to  a  large  extent,  the  profits  connected  with  ser-
vicing  of  such  traffic  (Węcławowicz  and  others  2006).  Lower  significance  ought
also be  attached  to the currently  frequently  repeated postulate  of  opening  up  new
border crossings with the eastern neighbours. It is more important to try to improve
the system of customs and border controls. Without shortening of these procedures
construction of the consecutive border crossings shall not decrease the function of
the  eastern  boundary  as  a spatial  barrier. The  experience  to date  teaches,  as  well,
that  opening  up  of  new  crossings  does  not  secure  smooth  traffic  flow,  because,
similarly as the already existing ones, they get blocked owing to the struggle with
the alcohol smuggling and due to the border procedures of the neighbouring coun-
tries.  In  case  of  overcoming  of  the  formal  barriers  (elimination  of  smuggling  and

Tomasz Komornicki : External Border of the European Union - Permeability, Co-operation, Perspectives.
In:Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 89-103. p.
Discussion Papers, Special

102
TOMASZ KOMORNICKI
border  corruption)  it  would  be  possible  to  put  to  work  the  local  crossings  in  the
tourist regions (Forest of BiałowieŜa, Bieszczady Mts., Vistula Lagoon).
Within  the  eastern  border-adjacent  areas  the  export  ties  with  the  direct
neighbours have undergone a decrease. In the country-wide setting this was com-
pensated  for  by  the  new  connections  of  the  companies  located  deeper  inside  Po-
land.  Within the territory  of  the  direct  borderland  this  may,  however,  constitute a
threat to the small businesses (the negative effect of the enlargement of the Euro-
pean Union). Local contacts of the smallest businesses may have been effectively
limited by the introduction of visas for the eastern neighbour countries.
In the coming years it should be expected that the situation in the field of bor-
der traffic across the eastern border would remain stable. One should not expect a
mass  increase  of  tourism  in  the  eastern  direction,  while  the  number  of  persons
crossing the boundary in connection with petty trade will remain at the level simi-
lar  to  the  present  one  due  to  the  border  procedures  of  the  neighbouring  countries
(including  corruption-related  activities  –  sale  of  places  in  queues).  Accession  of
Poland to the Schengen agreement will also be a factor limiting traffic increase in
the  East,  resulting,  beyond  doubt,  in  the  more  stringent  visa  regulations  for  the
citizens of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus’.
After 2013, in the case of positive political and market transformations in East-
ern Europe, more important transformations may take place in the structure of the
Polish-Ukrainian and Polish-Belarusian traffic. It cannot be excluded that the visa
obligation  would  then  be  abolished  (entry  without  a  visa  into  the  territory  of  the
entire Union). Situation at the eastern border should then become similar to that in
the  1990s  along  the  border  with  Germany  (Poland  playing  the  role  of  Germany).
Lower  prices  of  products  and  services,  given  the  simultaneous  improvement  of
standards in trade, and increase of safety, may bring about mass travels for shop-
ping (not only of alcohol and tobacco products) of the citizens of relatively poorer
Polish eastern border regions. This would cause demand for a high number of local
border crossings.  In case the eastern neighbours do not adopt the market oriented
and  the  pro-European  policies,  one  can  expect  further  stagnation,  or  even  a  de-
crease of the intensity of cross-border traffic.
References
ESPON 1.4.4, Final Report, 2006, www.espo.eu.
Komornicki, T. 1999: Granice Polski. Analiza zmian przenikalności w latach 1990–1996 [Boundaries
of  Poland.  Analysis  of  changes  in  permeability  in  the  years  1990–1996;  in Polish].  Geopolitical
Studies vol. 5. IGiPZ PAN, Warszawa, 348 pp.
Komornicki,  T.  2003:  Przestrzenne  zróŜnicowanie  międzynarodowych  powiązań  społeczno-
gospodarczych  w  Polsce  [The  spatial  differentiation  to  international  social  and  economical