Discussion Papers 2007.
Regionality and/or Locality 67-80. p.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AS A DRIVING
FORCE OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN POLAND
MAREK DEGÓRSKI
Introduction
In the perception of numerous social groups environment has been, and still often
is, seen as a little important part of the socio-economic system, whose management
is frequently in conflict with regional development, both in spatial and in purely
economic terms. The economic benefits resulting from the management of the en-
vironment are seen only in the exploitation of natural resources, which are tradi-
tionally treated to be the original source of economic growth. Over centuries, ex-
ploitation and processing of these resources constituted the foundations for the
economic development of nations, for the economic and political strategies, as well
as for the theories of economic growth, and this with doubtless success. Obviously,
the man-environment relations, based uniquely on the policy of exploitation of
natural resources, started to have negative consequences for people. New, unprece-
dented in geographical space, extreme phenomena and processes emerged, having
contributed in the last decades of the 20th century to the deeper reflection of men on
their relations with respect to the environment, and, consequently, to the new pro-
jections of directions for the development of civilization.
During the 1970s the criticism of the socio-economic development patterns to
date started to amplify. Limits to growth became an explicit subject of considera-
tion (Meadows et al. 1973), in connection with the “zero growth” or “organic
growth” concepts (Mesarovic–Pestel, 1977), which ultimately led to the idea of
sustainable development (WCED, 1987). In the same period, as well, a new vision
was defined of the functioning of people in the environment, referred to as the
socio-ecological system (SES), understood to be constituted by the intimately
linked and mutually interacting two components: the natural and the human re-
sources (Holling, 1973). In this concept, environment is assigned not only the eco-
nomic functions, but also the social (related to health, recreation, culture, educa-
tion, etc.) and the ecological ones (buffering, regulation of the matter and energy
cycles, etc.). It was noted that when looking at the environment only in the per-
spective of acquisition of goods, human kind destroys itself, or at least worsens the
qualities of its living conditions.
It was noted, at the same time, that implementation of principles of sustainable
development and optimization of use of the resources extracted from the natural
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
68
MAREK DEGÓRSKI
environment may constitute a very important factor of economic development.
Such activities lead, in particular, to appearance of new investment projects, fre-
quently supported with external sources, to establishment of new jobs, to develop-
ment of technical infrastructure, etc. They also produce very significant social ef-
fects, since they develop in the societies the awareness of individual responsibility
for the common good, constituted by the natural environment.
The purpose of the present paper is to assess the influence exerted by the solu-
tions related to environmental management, which are conforming to the principles
of sustainable development, on the system of the socio-economic environment. The
analysis of these relations on the example of Poland, and determination how in the
years 2000–2005 investments into protection of the most valuable resources of the
environment and into the improvement of their quality contributed to economic and
social activation of the regions, especially those encompassed by the assistance
from the European Union in the frameworks of the Cohesion Fund and the Com-
petitiveness Programme, financed out of the European Regional Development
Fund (ERDF). The paper aims also at the determination of the interdependence
between the increase of the investment outlays into environmental protection and
the improvement of economic attractiveness of the areas encompassed by the pro-
ecological activity.
Multi-functionality of the natural environment
and the socio-economic system
In contemporary world, with the growing pro-ecological consciousness of the so-
cieties of many countries, especially the highly developed ones, the role of the
natural environment, as an integral part of the mega-system of geographical envi-
ronment, which encompasses the socio-economic and the natural systems, being
mutually the subject and the surrounding of the respective systems, is being in-
creasingly recognised (Degórski, 2005). The multi-functionality of the natural en-
vironment, and, in particular, its role in formation of the human quality of life, is
noted. Given the fact that the respective functions are not only of generally natural
and ecological (non-economic) character, but display also the socio-economic as-
pect (Łaguna, 2004; Łaguna–Witkowska-Dąbrowska, 2005), including, in par-
ticular, the support from the natural and mineral resources, absorption of pollutant
emissions and waste accumulation, or habitat and landscape properties for human
relaxation (Figure 1), they are increasingly perceived as the elements of develop-
ment of individual regions, countries, etc.
This kind of approach causes that the improvement of the living standards of the
population is seen no longer only in the perspective of the economic and social
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AS A DRIVING FORCE OF REGIONAL …
6
9
development, but also of the care for the natural environmental resources, as ex-
pressed through the optimisation of use and management of their potential. This is
implemented with the use of the concept of sustainable development, this imple-
mentation requiring a number of logistic and economic activities. These activities
are very often, in turn, an activating factor for the economic development of given
country, since they require new investment projects, enabling production of the
pro-ecological equipment, construction or modernisation of infrastructure associ-
ated with sewage and waste-water economy, solid waste management, or applica-
tion of new solutions in power generation or transport. Hence, these activities con-
stitute the stimuli for such sectors of economy as construction, trade, transport and
service.
Figure 1
Environmental functions
Quality of life for society
Source: Own elaboration.
The need for such activities and their cost intensity is best seen in those coun-
tries, where the delay in the introduction of principles of sustainable development
is especially serious. A striking example in this sense is provided by the countries
of the Central and Eastern Europe, which, prior to accession, had been character-
ised by a very liberal policy with respect to the care for the quality of the natural
environment, particularly with respect to minimisation of the negative effects of the
human impact on the functioning of the natural system. It was only the inclusion of
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
70
MAREK DEGÓRSKI
these countries into the European structures that forced upon them the adoption of
the regulations valid for the members of the European Union, including the regula-
tions related to environmental protection. Investment funds, judged to be absolutely
essential for the implementation of the environmental acquis, expressed in the
share of the respective GDPs, ranged in 2003 from close to 12% in Lithuania and
Slovenia to 71% in Estonia (Figure 2).
Figure 2
Investment found absolutely essential for the implementation of environmental
acquis in GDP 2003
Source: According to Łaguna, 2004, modified by the author.
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AS A DRIVING FORCE OF REGIONAL …
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In addition, these activities require constant monitoring, which, on the one hand,
includes the controlling functions with respect to the principles of realisation of the
obligations, adopted by the state, resulting from the environmental acquis, while,
on the other hand, is subject itself to the audit, including the module of the evalua-
tion indicators used (Borys, 2005). The correctly and properly conducted monitor-
ing activities, yielding an increasingly good recognition of the processes and phe-
nomena, taking place in the system of geographical environment, aid also in the
development of the environmental-social concepts, and, in particular, in construc-
tion of the economic-ecological models.
Economic-ecological models
The concept of the socio-ecological system is still undergoing verification, and
continuing studies are carried out on the flexibility of the system with respect to
external factors (Carpenter et al., 2005) and determination of the directions of ac-
tion, meant to optimise the use and protection of natural environmental resources
(Barrenda and Georgantzis, 2000), as well as generation of development of the
multifunctional landscape (Degórski, 2003). Socio-ecological models are being
developed (Nijkamp, 1987; Domański, 2004), linking technical and procedural
solutions having been applied for years in the single-discipline models (ecological
and economic), internalizing the mutual relations between the economic and natu-
ral processes, taking place in the environment.
The primary method of model integration is selection and linkage of the single-
discipline models for the purpose of construction of multiple-discipline models.
Another approach to the development of the integrated models consists in holistic
modelling. Instead of linking the detailed models into the increasingly complex
formulas, in the holistic models efforts are made to construct one model, encom-
passing the respective whole. The ecological-economic constructs are becoming
more and more numerous and spread out, forming an important branch of model-
ling, to which, in particular, application-oriented implementation of the sustainable
development concept essentially contributed. Among the most frequently applied
models one should mention input-output, extended, environmental quality and
energy policy models.
Input-output models
Input-output models, being effective tools for describing regions and regional
systems, used before for determining flows between branches, nowadays account
for the input-output coefficients expressing the flows of goods between the econ-
omy and the natural environment, that is – between the economic system and the
ecological system. One of the basic objectives of application of these models is to
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
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MAREK DEGÓRSKI
determine the optimum solutions in the raw material economy. This concerns both
the models of material intensity of the economy, representing the interrelations
between the increase of the GDP and the TMR (total material requirement), and the
ones showing the load on the particular environmental resources related to produc-
tion of definite income.
Yet at the end of the last century in the world economy the growth of the GDP
of numerous countries was slower than the increase of volume of raw materials
used to generate it. In the countries of the European Union such a state of affairs
lasted until the middle of 1980s. It is only since then that a clear slowdown took
place of demand for mineral resources, while the GDP of the EU member states
has continued to grow (Bringezu–Schütz, 2001).
Side by side with the TMR indicator, applied in the input-output models, a very
important measure, used in optimization of the relation of costs to benefits, in
terms of the flow of goods between the economy and the natural environment, that
is – between the economic system and the ecological system, is the volume of the
particular goods of nature necessary to produce a definite level of the GDP. Such a
yardstick is constituted, for instance, by the water capacity used to generate 1,000
USD of GDP. It can be used to determine the differentiation of the volume of water
resources, needed to produce the value of 1,000 USD of the GDP in various re-
gions or countries. Thus, for instance, in the countries of the EU the range of values
of this indicator is of one order of magnitude. The lowest value is observed in The
Netherlands, while the highest – in Spain. In Poland this value is at about 18 cubic
meters (Figure 3).
Energy policy models
These models are applied mainly for optimising or simulating the functioning of
the entire power system of a region, from extraction of energy resources or use of
energy sources, through the technological process of energy production and distri-
bution, down to the economic
Consequences for the development of supply and demand, and the impact of the
processes of energy production on the environment. As noted by R. Domański
(2006), embodied energy may constitute a common denominator for the ecological
and economic formulas.
Similarly as in the input-output models, in the energy policy models, energy
consumption is considered, often in relation to cost intensity of its production, and
in comparisons with the increase of the GDP. Attention started to be particularly
paid to the consumption of energy after the energy crisis of the 1970s, when, on the
one hand, the problem of exhaustion of the non-renewable energy resources, cou-
pled with the unlimited increase of prices, became realistic, and on the other hand –
the negative impact of burning the energy carriers on the quality of natural envi-
ronment was defined and scientifically demonstrated. Hence, the use of energy
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AS A DRIVING FORCE OF REGIONAL …
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resources started to be optimised, and the rate of increase of energy consumption in
relation to the increase of the GDP started to be decreased. Thus, for instance, in
the EU 15 countries in the years 1995–2001 the GDP increased by roughly 17%,
and at the same time energy consumption increased by 5%, while in the years pre-
ceding this period the growth of energy consumption was higher than that of the
GDP (Environmental Signals, 2004). Yet, the energy intensity of the economies of
the new EU members differs from that of the old EU members. The lowest energy
intensity indicator, expressed as TOE/GDP, is noted for Denmark (at around 100).
It should be emphasised that the average value of this indicator for the old EU
countries is around 200. In comparison – for Poland it equals 460, and for all the
ten new member countries the average is higher than 700 (European Energy, 2004).
Figure 3
Water capacity used for the generate of 1000 USD GDP
50
45
40
.
3
35
m
r
i
n
30
t
e
a
25
f
w
o
i
t
y
20
c
a
p
15
a
c
10
5
0
any
rance
ustria
eden
oland
pain
S
erm
Ireland
inland
ongdom
F
A
elgium
w
B
S
F
P
etherlands
G
N
nited K
U
country
Source: Own elaboration.
Environmental quality management models
Environmental quality management models are containing, side by side with the
ecological and economic components, also the modules of the objective functions,
made use of mainly in the situation of multiplicity of goals that are formulated
within the concepts of development of an area. These models are also used for
purposes of valuation of space with respect to the location attractiveness, especially
for housing construction and the development of the residential areas (Łaguna–
Witkowska-Dąbrowska, 2005). Valuation, expressed through the value of the eco-
logical value of fixed property (VEFP):
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
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74
MAREK DEGÓRSKI
P
V
1m1 + P2m2 +…..
EFP =
∑P
Is performed on the basis of the point scores corresponding to the land use
forms (m), determined for the area of land (P). For example, the following point
scores are used for the particular categories of land cover: old forest – 10 points,
pasture – 4 points, arable land – 1 point. Then, on the basis of adopted intervals for
the value of sum of scores, the degree of ecological value is determined, related to
the characteristics of the land use forms (very small, small, medium, good, etc.).
Extended models
The so-called extended models, that is, the economic ones with an ecological
component, are constructed for the purpose of assessing the economic conse-
quences of the environmental policies, and in particular – the effects of reduction
of environmental pollution. In their theoretical prerequisites these models refer to
the state of general spatial equilibrium, which results from the equilibrium between
the subjects such as producers and consumers, having at their disposal, in particu-
lar, the environmental resources, production means, etc. Based on the concepts of
Walrus and Pareto (McClure, 2001), they are being still developed (Hicks, 1975,
1979), with one of examples constituted by the models of optimization of air pro-
tection costs (Łaguna, 2004). Such models, based, for instance, on the relations
between the maximum acceptable cost of pollution reduction (MAC) and the
maximum acceptable social cost (MSC) allow for the determination and then im-
plementation of the technical solutions, meant to both reduce pollution and to de-
crease the related social costs.
Investment outlays associated with the improvement of human life quality,
through the improvement of the sanitary state of the environment, represent nowa-
days one of the most rapidly developing segments of the economy, especially so in
the countries, where highly significant delays in this domain still exist. This applies
also to Poland, where ample potential room for investments remains in existence in
this domain. One of the segments in question is sewage and wastewater economy,
and, in particular, the investment projects linked with the construction and expan-
sion of the sewage systems and water treatment plants. Despite an important pro-
gress in this field, the value of the potentially needed investment projects is esti-
mated at the level of tens of billions of Euro.
The investment projects to date, linked with construction of sewage systems and
water treatment plants, have been realised primarily in towns. The number of water
treatment plants, serving towns, increased in the years 1990–2003 from 566 to 955.
During this period 344 wastewater treatment (WWT) plants were built featuring
enhanced effectiveness of water purification, that is – with improved removal of
biogens. The situation regarding the development of the sewage systems and con-
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AS A DRIVING FORCE OF REGIONAL …
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5
struction of the WWT plants is much worse within the rural areas, where only
16.5% of the inhabitants are served by the WWT plants (compared to 84.2% for
towns). The lowest shares of the inhabitants, serviced by the WWT plants occur in
the central and eastern parts of the country (Figure 4).
Figure 4
People served by sewage treatment plant in Poland
Source: According to Węcławowicz et al. 2006.
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
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76
MAREK DEGÓRSKI
An instrument, which can be made use of for the purposes of improving quality
of life on the rural areas through realisation of pro-ecological investment projects
or programs of protection of the most valuable fragments of the environment, is
constituted by the Agricultural Funds, especially on the areas characterised by an
intensive farming economy (Meyer, 2005). European Commission planned the
funding of such programs for rural areas in 2007–2013 at the level of 77.66 billion
€, with additional 10.23 billion € meant for Bulgaria and Romania.
The largest beneficiary of the means, directed by the European Commission for
the development of rural areas (77,66 billion euro), will be Poland, whose share
will amount to more than 13 billion € (Figure 5), which constitutes more than 17%
of all the EU means devoted to the development of rural areas (Figure 6). A part of
these means will be directed to realization of the so-called agricultural-environ-
mental programs, whose task it is to optimise the functioning of the natural envi-
ronment on rural areas. The more particular examples include, inter alias, the im-
plementation of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (United Kingdom), develop-
ment of wind energy (Scotland), development of agro-environmental schemes
(Austria), or NATURA 2000 wildlife habitat protection programme (Germany,
Poland).
Figure 5
Rural funding shares conform by European Commission for 2007–2013
14 000 000 000
12 000 000 000
10 000 000 000
8 000 000 000
ro
u
E
6 000 000 000
4 000 000 000
2 000 000 000
0
L
K
ark
any
alta
N
eden
U
elgium
stonia reece Spain
yprus Latvia
ustria oland
B
epublicenm erm
E
G
France Ireland
Italy
C
ungary M
A
P
ortugal
D
G
Lithuania
Lux
H
P
SloveniaSlovakiaFinlandSw
zech R
C
country
Source: Own elaboration.
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
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ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AS A DRIVING FORCE OF REGIONAL …
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Figure 6
The percentage participation of each states in EU rural funding for 2007–2013
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
%
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
L
K
ark
any
pain
alta
N
eden
U
elgium
stonia reece S
yprus Latvia
ustria oland
w
B
epublicenm erm E
G
FranceIreland
Italy
C
ungary M
A
P
ortugallovenialovakiaFinland
D
G
Lithuania
Lux
H
P
S
S
S
zech R
C
country
Source: Own elaboration.
Cohesion through competitiveness
One of the instruments, enabling verification and application of ecological-eco-
nomic models, is constituted by the operational actions, implementing the multiple
option results from the ecological-economic models. The cost of optimisation of
the social development with the use of natural resources and the economic basis is
covered most often from own means of a given country, although it is increasingly
often supported from the international funds, which results from the increase of
awareness of many societies that the openness of the system of natural environment
precludes any boundaries, and that it is the common good shared by all the citizens
of the globe. In case of the new EU member countries such a role is played by the
Cohesion Fund and the Competitiveness Programs, financed from the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF). It is owing to the support from these sources
that the investments made into protection of the most valuable environmental re-
sources and improvement of their quality, contributed to economic and social acti-
vation of the respective regions. Oftentimes, regions, according to the principles of
competitiveness, try to achieve increasingly good effects of implementation of the
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
78
MAREK DEGÓRSKI
sustainable development precepts and to attain better environmental conditions for
social development.
Poland, being a country having taken advantage of the EU assistance funds al-
ready during preparation for accession, gained an even broader access to the EU
means after having joined the European structures. The number of projects in-
creased (Figure 7), along with the outlays into their realisation, including the pro-
portion of the contribution from the regional development funds (Figure 8). In the
years 2000–2005 altogether 86 projects were implemented in Poland, with joint
outlays on them equal 4.49 billion €. Poland obtained from the means of the so-
called Cohesion Fund of the EU 2.83 billion €. Unit value of individual projects
was significantly differentiated. The project with the highest value of means di-
rected to its realisation was the third stage of water supply and treatment system in
Warsaw – 405.54 million €, funded by the Cohesion Fund of the EU in 248.06
million EU.
Figure 7
Number of project supported by Cohesion Fund of the EU
25
20
15
10
5
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Source: Own elaboration.
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
Discussion Papers, Special
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AS A DRIVING FORCE OF REGIONAL …
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9
Figure 8
Total value of the regional development projects realized in Poland, including the
proportion of the contribution from the Cohesion Funds of EU
1400
1200
1000
r
o
800
u
E
l
n
600
m
400
200
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
years
Value of project
Funded by Cohesion Funds of EU
Source: Own elaboration.
Conclusion
In the contemporary world natural environment constitutes a very important ele-
ment of the entire geographical mega-system, and its qualities and resources are an
economically measurable element of the economy, which is often the driving force
of regional development. Hence, using the assets of nature in the policies of re-
gional development is highly promising for the future, in view of the directions of
development of the economies of numerous countries, referring to the concept of
sustainable development.
On the basis of the results presented it can therefore be stated that:
− environment is playing a very important role in socio-economic development
− the economic-ecological models are very useful for estimation of sustainable
development on local and regional levels
− cohesion through competitiveness is a very important instrument in regional
development.
Marek Degórski : Environmental Conditions as a Driving Force of Regional Development in Poland.
In: Regionality and/or Locality. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2007. 67-80. p.
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MAREK DEGÓRSKI
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