Discussion Papers 2009.
Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins 109-121. p.
INTERNAL PERIPHERIES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT IN POLAND
KONRAD Ł. CZAPIEWSKI – KRZYSZTOF JANC
Introduction
According to Luger and Maynard (2008, 29.) regional economic development is
“efforts to enhance employment, income, wealth, and/or opportunity within a de-
fined geographic areas (…); it is an outcome, equated to a better quality-of-life for
citizens (…) that means a more vibrant social and cultural milieu, financial secu-
rity, physical health and well-being, and a sustainable environment”. Such defi-
nitions correspond to the term „socio-economic development” used in this article,
simultaneously taking into account social, economical, infrastructural, environ-
mental and spatial conditions of development.
An important aspect of the contemporary socio-economic processes is consti-
tuted by their close association with concrete location and its features, and shaped
by it – local, unrepeatable resources. The territorially rooted, specific properties of
some locations predestine them to play the role of leaders – the engines of regional
development. The character and course of regional development processes is out-
lined by growth conditions and activity factors that may be defined as development
potential.
Regional disparities, in terms of the level of socio-economic development, are
getting uncovered in the majority of spatial analyses conducted for individual
countries or for smaller administrative units. In the studies carried out for the entire
Europe, the reference units are either regions (NUTS 2) or subregions (NUTS 3),
such as, for instance, in the studies of ESPON (European Spatial Planning Obser-
vation Network). The adoption of these large units showcases their significant in-
ternal diversity, reflected, in particular, through the attainment of high values by
the deviation indicators for the attributes analysed. The high degree of heterogene-
ity of the considered regions causes important loss of information through averag-
ing of the phenomena studied, so that the image obtained does not fully reflect the
actual reality.
The intraregional differences are an increasingly significant planning and re-
search issue. The inner diversity of regions is also important as, apart from the
region’s power, it is its structure that maintains reasonable relations between centre
and periphery.

Konrad L. Czapiewski - Krzysztof Janc : Internal Peripheries of Socio-Economic Development in Poland.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 109-121. p. Discussion Papers, Special
KONRA
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D
Ł. CZAPIEWSKI – KRZYSZTOF JANC
It should, however, be clearly emphasised that the issue of the regional polari-
sation of the country is a universal phenomenon and is in a way natural. The func-
tioning of the inner development boundaries is an unavoidable phenomenon in a
free market economic system. Owing to the regional differences, development
takes place, since the differences constitute the stimulating factor of progress. Yet,
the differences between the regions cannot take on very big dimensions, since then
the transfer of technology and innovation is in practice impossible and the relations
between the respective regions become even more disproportionate. In this context,
it is more important to conduct an appropriate development policy for the core and
peripheral areas than to attempt the complete evening out of socio-economic dif-
ferences – spatial effectiveness or spatial equity. The former model assumes the
increase of regional differentiation, but with emergence of cores and centres of
growth capable of more effective use of means and more effective competition on
the European scale. On the other hand, in the latter model larger emphasis is placed
on the evening out of the development differences and the inflow of more funds to
the less developed regions. Both the obtained results and the course of the contem-
porary development processes as well as the policies implemented show the domi-
nation of effectiveness over equity.
The main aim of the article is the presentation of internal borders and internal
peripheries of socio-economic development. Taking into account the cited defini-
tion of socio-economic development, the intraregional differentiation of some se-
lected features was shown – level of socio-economic development, infrastructure as
well as human capital and migration. Spatial analyses was always done on the
smallest administrative units – NUTS4 or NUTS5, which allow for the description
of spatial differences being created within the regions. Additionally, an analysis of
the influence of the distance from three selected regional centres – Warsaw, Wro-
cław and Szczecin – on values of the investigated features in the communes was
conducted.
The intraregional boundaries in Polish space
The influence exerted by the existence of a boundary on the socio-economic devel-
opment of a country or of the regions constitutes a significant research and applied
problem (see, in particular, Rumley – Minghi, 1991; Komornicki, 2003; Krok –
Smętkowski, 2006). At least three kinds of boundaries, conditioning in an essential
manner the level and the direction of economic development, can be distinguished
in the space of Poland:
 political boundaries with the neighbouring countries – closeness of location
may have a stimulating impact on the development (e.g. Euroregions, cross-

Konrad L. Czapiewski - Krzysztof Janc : Internal Peripheries of Socio-Economic Development in Poland.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 109-121. p. Discussion Papers, Special
INTERNAL PERIPHERIES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN POLAND
111
border trade, Schengen zone – the so-called significantly and fully permeable
boundaries, according to the study by Ciok [1990]), or a hampering impact
(lack of trade and local authority connections, passport and customs hin-
drances – the so-called impermeable or only partly permeable boundaries, ac-
cording to Ciok [1990]); the first kind of boundaries applies, first of all, in the
case of regions bordering upon Germany (numerous joint transboundary
projects), as well as those bordering upon Czechia, Slovakia and Lithuania;
the second type of boundaries applies to the areas bordering upon Belarus’,
Russia (the Kaliningrad District), and Ukraine;
 historical boundaries, connected with the 19th-century partition of Poland
into three parts, belonging to Russia, Austria and Prussia, and the shift of the
political boundaries after the World War II; during the 19th century the es-
sential socio-economic structure of the country took shape, owing to the de-
velopment of industry, construction of railways, urbanisation and structural
changes in farming; within each of the three parts different legal systems
were in force, and the political relation to the territories administered dif-
fered, so that also nowadays, with respect to many cultural, social, infra-
structural or economic aspects, distinct boundaries resulting from the 19th
century partitions are visible;
 intraregional boundaries, defining the zones of the weakening influence of
the large urban centres; these boundaries coincide to a definite degree with
the administrative boundaries of provinces, but their existence is linked with
distance, or, more precisely, with spatial accessibility of a given area to the
growth centre of the region; the boundaries of this type, rather than being
lines, take the form of belts or zones; two examples, from the domain of de-
mography and the economic-infrastructural domain are provided in order to
illustrate the existence of the intraregional boundaries.
Socio-economic development
In case of socio-economic potential, the division of Poland into a core and periph-
ery scheme revealed the most clearly visible differences. Definitely the highest
development potential characterises the largest cities and their suburbia (Figure 1).
It is an understandable and typical spatial scheme that is met by regional develop-
ment analysis not only in Poland. Cities presently concentrate the greatest devel-
opment potential and have or rather should have exogenous functions for sur-
rounding areas. Such situations do not always occur. In case of large agglomera-
tions, one may point at their suburbia that are characterised by high potential.
However, smaller units, especially towns located in the eastern part of the country,
are not so strong as to stimulate the development of neighbour areas. And it is

Konrad L. Czapiewski - Krzysztof Janc : Internal Peripheries of Socio-Economic Development in Poland.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 109-121. p. Discussion Papers, Special
KONRA
112
D
Ł. CZAPIEWSKI – KRZYSZTOF JANC
counties from eastern Poland that are characterised by the weakest development
potential. This is a result of many factors such as history (Russian rule during XIX
century), the mono-functional structure of economy based on agriculture and the
aforementioned lack of strong urban centres. The Warsaw agglomeration, with its
very high development potential, has an exceptional position in Central and Eastern
Poland. However, already in the distance of about 50 km from the Polish capital,
the peripheral area begins in terms of development potential begins. The remaining
areas of the region are characterised by a much lower development potential and in
principle do not gain any advantage from the fact of being situated in the province
of Mazovia (the wealthiest region in Poland, with the highest values of GDP per
capita and the highest rate of socio-economic growth). Therefore, the distance in
development between the area of agglomerations and the region outskirts is signifi-
cant. Areas with developed tourist functions also have high potential – the sea-side
belt, lake regions and some mountain areas in the south of the country.
Figure 1
Counties by synthetic index of socio-economic development potential & location
of three selected regional centres

Source: Authors’ own construction.

Konrad L. Czapiewski - Krzysztof Janc : Internal Peripheries of Socio-Economic Development in Poland.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 109-121. p. Discussion Papers, Special
KONRA
114
D
Ł. CZAPIEWSKI – KRZYSZTOF JANC
Infrastructure
On the basis of the synthetic indicator of the level of infrastructural development it
can be stated that there exists a broad belt of communes, featuring distinctly higher
values of this indicator (Figure 3). Besides, one can clearly see that the suburban
zones of larger cities also feature higher values of this indicator. Similarly, around
the remaining cities of more than 100,000 inhabitants, concentric zones can be seen
with the indicator values of the infrastructural and economic development higher
than the national average. On the other hand, the areas with distinctly lower values
of the indicator analysed are constituted by the municipalities from the provinces in
Eastern and Central Poland (Czapiewski, 2004). A better situation in the suburban
municipalities corresponds to the frequently determined directions of diffusion of
the development impulses in space in Polish conditions. This diffusion, namely,
takes primarily place from the west towards the east, from the large urban centres
to the surrounding regions, as well as along the main transport routes (Węcła-
wowicz et al, 2006).
Figure 3
Indicator of the infrastructural development of the Polish municipalities
g
h
low
hi
average

Source: Authors’ own construction.

Konrad L. Czapiewski - Krzysztof Janc : Internal Peripheries of Socio-Economic Development in Poland.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 109-121. p. Discussion Papers, Special
KONRA
116
D
Ł. CZAPIEWSKI – KRZYSZTOF JANC
Human capital and migrations
The analysis of the phenomenon of migration allows for the determination of very
important processes of transformation in spatial structures. The areas featuring
significant population loss are concentrated in the outer zones of the regional pe-
ripheries –situated in the border zones between the provinces (Figure 5). These
municipalities are situated at a far distance from the economic centres of the par-
ticular provinces, which causes that the development impulses, originating from
such centres do not reach the distant areas. In effect, important outflow takes place
from these areas, usually to the largest cities or towards their direct neighbour-
hoods. It is exactly the suburban areas around the regional centres that featured the
highest population increase and one should expect the continuation of this process
in the future. The increase of population numbers was also characteristic for the re-
gions of Małopolska and Kaszuby –areas of traditional social structure featuring
relatively high natural increase.
Figure 5
Migration balance in Poland
-3,0 -0,5 4,8

Source: Authors own construction.

Konrad L. Czapiewski - Krzysztof Janc : Internal Peripheries of Socio-Economic Development in Poland.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 109-121. p. Discussion Papers, Special
INTERNAL PERIPHERIES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN POLAND
117
If we look at population migrations in absolute figures, an interesting image of
Polish space appears. The majority of rural municipalities in Poland have been
characterised in recent years by a small – in absolute terms – negative balance of
migrations between 0 and 40 persons a year. On the other hand, a handful of com-
munes (some 125 units – 6% of the total), concentrated around the biggest devel-
opment centres, were characterised by the migration-related increase of more than
100 persons a year. These values confirm the previously indicated process of
population concentration in the urban complexes, taking shape and encompassing
the towns along with their suburban zones.
The largest negative migration balance is observed in the areas situated outside
of the sphere of influence of the largest towns in North-Eastern Poland. Intensive
outflow of population from areas of rural character takes place there. In the part of
Poland considered this is quite a significant problem, since poor perspectives of
getting a job in the countryside, associated with the lack of (or, rather, poor use
made of the existing possibilities) the sources of subsistence alternative to farming,
is linked with high shares of rural population. At the same time, inflow to towns is
not compensated for in these cases by the outflow of the urban population.
The highest education levels are observed within the areas situated in the vicin-
ity of large urban centres, especially regional capitals, the least advantageous
situation exists in the areas between such zones (Figure 6). Two disadvantageous
kinds of conditions coincide on these areas: low accessibility to the establishments
of tertiary education in larger cities and a lack of such establishments in place.
The co-presence of universities and great share of people with higher education
is observed clearly, as confirmed by the percentage of people with higher education
in all localities in Poland that are the academic centres (15.4%). The value of this
rate for the rest of the country amounts to 6.1%. The concentration of the schools
and people with higher education in the main academic centre occurs in all pre-
sented areas. In the majority of cases, there is a drastic decrease in the share of
people with higher education. The presence of the next academic centres in the
following concentric spheres causes a simultaneous increase of this rate.
It is interesting to observe the gradient of the decrease in share of people with
higher education with the increasing distance to the academic centre. As far as the
surroundings of Warszawa are concerned, one observes a slow fall in education
level, while in the neighbourhood of Szczecin and Wrocław there are the greatest
differences between the central unit and the closest sphere of communes (Figure
7). In these cases the average value of the share of people with higher education is
similar to the value for the whole area around an academic town already in the
second sphere. It means that the spatial influence of these centres to the surround-
ing areas is scarce.

Konrad L. Czapiewski - Krzysztof Janc : Internal Peripheries of Socio-Economic Development in Poland.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 109-121. p. Discussion Papers, Special
KONRA
118
D
Ł. CZAPIEWSKI – KRZYSZTOF JANC
Conclusions
The intraregional boundaries differentiate a given area between the parts charac-
terised by more and less advantageous socio-economic, infrastructural and demo-
graphic-migration conditions. These boundaries, though, do not form precisely
defined lines, and their distance from the core centre depends upon the phenome-
non analysed. Besides, in many cases the level of development of a commune deci-
sively depends upon the specific local conditions, such as the entrepreneurship of
the inhabitants, that is, a number of endogenous development conditions. There
are, additionally, numerous phenomena which do not have a spatial aspect, or their
appearance depends upon many other variables, such as, for instance, the quality of
the natural environment. Yet, as one analyses a definite group of issues – especially
those associated with the economic sphere – the development of the internal pe-
ripheries of development becomes visible.
Figure 6
Shares of population with higher education in Poland
6,0 7,0 9,5

Source: Authors own construction.

Konrad L. Czapiewski - Krzysztof Janc : Internal Peripheries of Socio-Economic Development in Poland.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 109-121. p. Discussion Papers, Special
KONRA
120
D
Ł. CZAPIEWSKI – KRZYSZTOF JANC
further progress may result in the establishment of ‘enclaves of poverty’ in some
areas.
Evident split into large cities that are characterised by the greatest development
potential and into remaining areas is undoubtedly a confirmation of the worldwide
process of polarisation in socio-economic space. The consequently appearing core-
periphery scheme carries serious implications. From one respect, the establishment
of metropolises that concentrate well-educated and entrepreneurial people, are well
equipped in infrastructural outfit, and have high economic indicators should enable
Polish regions to compete at the international level. Great urban centres may be a
motivating force for the whole region’s growth. However, on the other hand, the
process of increasing intra-regional diversity is evident. Therefore, the establish-
ment of strong centres at peripheries’ costs is a serious challenge for regional de-
velopment policy. It is essential for the region to be a unified, functionally coherent
area, and, therefore, that the development of cities should be accompanied by the
development of their surroundings.
The obtained results highlight the repetition of the proposition formulated ear-
lier, namely that at least under Polish conditions (although the same can be said for
the majority of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe), it is necessary to
elaborate appropriate development plans and strategies for the areas of inner pe-
ripheries, which, being significantly removed from the centres of the socio-eco-
nomic development, and characterised to a large extent by monofunctionality, as-
sociated with farming, can rely in their development only on the endogenous fac-
tors; these factors, in the majority of cases, remaining at a very low level.
The existence of areas with high or low potential does not predispose to the role
of the leaders or outsiders. Development potential that ex definitionem character-
ises development abilities and possibilities, does not always have to be used prop-
erly. The abundance of exogenous and endogenous factors that affect socio-eco-
nomical processes may lead to the hindrance of growth in areas with high potential
and in the same time may stimulate the development of weaker regions. Hence
there is a necessity of reasonable and effective actions of decision makers. Actions
that will enable multifunctional development based on the full use of existing po-
tential and on a possibly permanent increase in its quality in all areas – currently
weak and strong. Only constant improvement of scores and equal development of
all potentials causes that the given area may be called the basis of success.
References
Ciok, S. 1990: Problematyka obszarów przygranicznych Polski południowo-zachodniej, stadium
społeczno-ekonomiczne [Socio-economic problems of south-western borderlands of Poland].
Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis. 1155. (in Polish).