Discussion Papers 2009.
Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins 98-108. p.
CHANGES AND SPATIAL DIFFERENTIATION
IN POLISH AGRICULTURE
ROMAN KULIKOWSKI
Introduction
Agriculture is an important branch of Poland’s economy and provides about 16%
of the total country’s employment. Equally, agriculture is in itself a major factor
influencing the state of the environment and shaping the rural landscape.
Among the natural factors, the ones influencing the development of agriculture
the most are climate, soil and relief. Some of the plants grown in Poland are subject
to frequent ground-frosts in the late spring and early ones in the autumn. Another
problem is the dearth of precipitation and its negative distribution through the year.
The soils in Poland were in a large measure developed on post-glacial sediments
(sands, gravels and rarely clays). The best and very good soils cover only 3.3% of
the country; poor and very poor soils take up 34.6%.
The plain is the most dominant type of relief which does not in general hinder
cultivation.
Poland has a large potential where agricultural land is concerned. As more than
half of the country is accounted for by agricultural lands, constituting for more than
10% of EU total farmland (Bański, 2007). A low level of pollution of the natural
environment over most of the country, represents a major attribute of Polish agri-
culture especially from the point of view of food exportation.
The political transformation of the 1990s brought macroeconomic deterioration
where agriculture was concerned. The first years saw an end to the state sector in
Polish agriculture, as well as a limitation of eastern markets for its output. The
period 1996–2000 brought a marked worsening of the relationships between the
prices charged for articles farmers needed to buy and those paid their output was
purchased (Zegar, 2001). Such changes meant a decline in farmers’ incomes to
about 40% on the average of what those employed outside agriculture could expect
(Orłowski, 2001).
After Poland became an EU member state in May 2004, the macroeconomic
background for agriculture started improving considerably. Exports of agricultural
products from Poland to Western Europe had increased in a very short time by
around 30% and the trend was maintained in the next months. Some 1.5 million
Polish farmers have received direct payments under the Guarantee section of the
Community’s EAGGF. At present agricultural economists estimate about 40% of
average income of Polands’ farmers constitute the total EU fund supports.

Roman Kulikowski : Changes and Spatial Differentiation in Polish Agriculture.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 98-108. p. Discussion Papers, Special
CHANGES AND SPATIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF POLISH AGRICULTURE
99
Agrarian structure
At the beginning of the 1990s, the changes of Polish agrarian structure had been
significant – especially in terms of land ownership. In 1989 private farming owned
76.2% of total agricultural land in Poland, state farms possessed 18.8%, 3.8% was
under collective ownership, and some 0.3% was kept by the agricultural circles
(Głębocki, 2005). In the years 1992–1995, state farms and agricultural circles were
liquidated and their land, together with land belonging to the State Land Fund was
taken over by the State Treasury Agricultural Property Agency. Under the admini-
stration of the Agency some 4 million hectares were distributed, out of which 2.9
million were leased and barely 380 thousand sold. As the result of transformations
the share of land used by private agriculture amounted to 95% of the total agri-
cultural area and the average size of a private individual farm had increased from 7
ha of agricultural land in 1990 to 8.9 in 2007. Simultaneously the number of indi-
vidual holdings decreased from 2138 to 1881 in parallel with the process of polari-
sation involving the increase of the share of the smallest holdings (1–2 ha) and of
farms above 15 ha. The smallest acreage of holdings is observed in the southern
provinces of the country, while the provinces featuring the largest acreage were in
the north, where farms of more than 15 ha constitute about 70% of the total agri-
cultural area (Figure 1).
Employment in agriculture
As of 2007, agriculture was giving work to 2,092,300 people, or 13.7% of the total
employment in the country. The average number of persons employed in agricul-
ture per 100 hectares of agricultural land dropped in Poland from 24 persons in
1989 to 14.7. This number, likewise, varies considerably across space, ranging
from 5 persons in Lubuskie voivodship and West Pomerania, 9 persons in Warmia
and Mazury to 30 persons in the regions situated at the foot of Carpathians.
The 2002 Agricultural Census revealed that around half of all people running
farms had no professional agricultural qualification whatsoever. Also as of 2002,
the average figure for agricultural population with over primary education was
53%. In turn, tertiary education of relevance to agriculture was possessed by just
1.2% (Figure 2).
The changes in labour resources in the 1990s encompassed also their increase in
South-East and Central Poland, where considerable surplus was noted, and the de-
crease in northern and western parts of the country. In South-Eastern Poland, as
well as some central parts, the greatest proportions of farms being run by the over–
65s are to be found.

Roman Kulikowski : Changes and Spatial Differentiation in Polish Agriculture.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 98-108. p. Discussion Papers, Special
ROMAN
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KULIKOWSKI
The mechanisation of agriculture and the use of mineral fertilisers
The over-dominant source of traction available in Polish agriculture is mechanical
(98%). In the years 1989–2007 the number of tractors increased from 1.1 million to
1.5 million, while the areas of agricultural land per 1 tractor decreased from 16 to
10 ha. The serious problem in the circumstances of the still highly fragmented
farms present in Poland is not so much that the number of tractors per unit of agri-
cultural land is low, as that there is a shortage on the land of the kind of low-horse-
power machines best suited to work on the small plots actually being cultivated.
Furthermore, over half of these tractors have usually been produced before 1980
and represent dated technology. In the early 90s, there was an inevitable decline in
the level of use of fertilisers – from 164 kg NPK per ha of agricultural land in
1989/1990 to 66 kg in 1992/1993. Usage rose slightly thereafter to reach 117 kg
per ha of farmland in 2006/2007. As of 2000–2007, the supply of pesticides ex-
pressed in terms of kg of active substance rose from 0.4 to 0.9 kg per ha of agri-
cultural land on the average. However, not all farms use pesticides.
Figure 1
Average size of Individually-owned farms in Poland, 2002

Source: Author’s elaboration according to Geografia rolnictwa Polski 2007.

Roman Kulikowski : Changes and Spatial Differentiation in Polish Agriculture.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 98-108. p. Discussion Papers, Special
ROMAN
102
KULIKOWSKI
saw. This accounts for little more than 1% of the country’s farmland, yet supplies
more than 1/3 of its fruit.
A distinct observable phenomenon post-1990 in relation to arable land was the
marked fall in the area sown with crops (Table 2), not so much in area but in a
large increase of the share being taken by cereals, as well as the absolute and rela-
tive decline for potato and fodder crop cultivation.
Table 1
Structure of agricultural land use 1990–2007
Agriculture land
1990
2000
2007
thousand ha
%
thousand ha
%
thousand ha
%
Total
18 539
100,0
17 812
100,0
16 177
100,0
Arable land
14 311
77,2
13 683
76,8
11 869
73,5
Orchards
269 1,4  257 1,4  337 2,0
Meadows
2 427
13,1
2 503
14,0
2 497
15,4
Pastures
1 532
8,3
1 369
7,7
1 474
9,1
Source: Author’s elaboration according to Geografia rolnictwa Polski 2007.
Table 2
Structure of cropland 1990–2007
Cropland 1990 2000 2007
thousand ha
%
thousand ha
%
thousand ha
%
Total
14,242 100.0 12,408 100.0  11,456 100.0
Grains
8,531 59.9 8,814 71.0  8,353 72.9
Wheat
2,281 16.0 2,635 21.3  2,112 18.4
Rye
2,314 16.2 2,130 17.2  1,316 11.5
Triticale
562 3.9 695 5.6 1,260
11.0
Barley
1,174 8.2
1,096 8.8 1,232
10.8
Oats
747 5.2 566 4.6  583 5.1
Grain mixtures
1,169
8.2
1,478
11.9
1,505
13.1
Potatoes
1,835 12.9 1,251 10.1  570  5.0
Sugar
beets
440 3.1 333 2.7  247 2.1
Rape
seed
500 3.5 437 3.5  797 7.9
Fodder crops
2,342
16.4
913
7.4
866
7.6
Field
vegetables  255 1.8 248 2.0  217 1.9
Other
crops
339 2.4 546 4.4  406 3.6
Source: Author’s elaboration according to Geografia rolnictwa Polski 2007.

Roman Kulikowski : Changes and Spatial Differentiation in Polish Agriculture.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 98-108. p. Discussion Papers, Special
CHANGES AND SPATIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF POLISH AGRICULTURE
103
As of late, the area growing potatoes is only one quarter of the area in 1960. The
spatial differentiation of potato cultivation has also changed. The areas formerly
showing a marked importance of potato growing in the east-central part of Poland
and in East Wielkopolska have now disappeared, and their place has been taken by
the south-east.
A favourable change in the area sown is the increase of crops of greater value in
feeding livestock (like triticale and mixed cereal) at the expense of rye and oats.
Among the industrial crops, sugar beet and rape play very important roles in
Poland. The last 17 years have seen a gradual fall of the area under sugar beet. As
of 2007 rape is grown on some 800 ha and its cultivation since 2000 has grown
almost twice. Tobacco (some 10 thousand ha) was being grown mainly in the up-
land of Lublin and to the north-east of Cracow.
The field cultivation of vegetables was taking place on some 1.9% of all crop-
land and was concentrated in the zones around big agglomerations, especially War-
saw and Cracow as well as in the valley of the Vistula river.
The data from the 2002 Agricultural Census show that just 6300 ha of Poland
were devoted to the cultivation of vegetables under cover. Nevertheless, the crops
in question are of importance, since they supply consumers with much needed vita-
mins and microelements in the winter period.
Average cereal harvests in the years 1986–1990 had accounted for 26.1 million
t and declined to 23.2 million t in the years 1991–1994 (the beginning of the trans-
formation period). In the last several years the cereal production increased to about
27 million t.
In potato production one can observe a marked fall from 36.1 million t in the
years 1989–1990 to 14.6 million t in 2001–2005 and 11.8 million t afterwards.
The harvest of vegetables (5.5–6.0 million tons) do not show bigger in the last
few years, while the production of fruits from trees have risen from 1.8 million t in
the years 1990–1995 to 2.8 million tons in 2001–2006.
Livestock raising
According to the 2002 Agricultural Census, not quite half of all agricultural land
was devoted to activity connected with livestock production. In 2007, the division
of livestock raising accounted for 44.7% of global output, and for 56.7 of the out-
put of commercial agricultural production. Animal breeding is dominated by the
two branches of cattle- and pig-rearing. Poultry breeding for meat and eggs also
plays a major role.
The last quarter-century has brought a deep fall in the number of heads of live-
stock in Poland, mainly cattle and sheep. There was also a decline in the number of
large livestock units (where 1 unit = 500 kg) per 100 ha of farmland.

Roman Kulikowski : Changes and Spatial Differentiation in Polish Agriculture.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 98-108. p. Discussion Papers, Special
ROMAN
104
KULIKOWSKI
As of 2007, there were 45% as many cattle as there had been in 1980. Such a
large fall in the national cattle herd reflected a marked reduction of cattle breeding
on small farms, as well as the liquidation of state farms post-1990. A next under-
lying factor was the declining profitability of the small herds capable of being
maintained on small holdings. Nevertheless, cattle still remained present on 48% of
holdings covering more than 1 ha, and individually-owned farms supported 96% of
the total national herd of cattle. A region of the particularly intensive raising of
cattle in Poland, which has only taken shape in the last 20 or so years, is the west-
ern part of Podlasie voivodship.
The second very important branch of livestock production in Poland involves
pigs. As of 2007, pork accounted for 11.8% of gross output and 15.9 % of com-
mercial agricultural production, This represents a dominant 55% share in the coun-
try’s overall production of meat that year. The size of the national herd of pigs has
fluctuated markedly, but its reduction was much more smaller. Furthermore, the
differences in numbers of pigs from region to region were great as of 2002 The
numbers of pigs per 100 ha of agricultural land varied from 1–2 in the vicinity of
Warsaw specialising in market gardening, through 15–20 in the foothill areas of the
Carpathians, up to 230 in Wielkopolska and the Kujawy region. Record stock lev-
els of between 800 and 1000 were in turn present on some of the gminas of
Wielkopolska.
After cattle- and pig-raising, a very important branch of livestock production in
Poland is that connected with poultry. The share this branch takes in overall com-
mercial output of livestock increased from 13.3% in 1990 to 15.1% in 2007. The
major role where the poultry breeding is concerned is assigned to hens, which rep-
resent 80% of all birds kept.
Sheep breeding was virtually completely discontinued (decrease from 4.2 mil-
lion heads in 1990 to 362 thousand in 2007).
Commercialisation, land and labour productivity
The degree of commercialisation, i.e. the share of commercial production in total
gross output declined from 62.5% in 1990 to 50.1% in 1995, albeit with subsequent
rise back to 70.5% by 2007. This marked decline in commercial production of ag-
riculture reflected the crisis accompanying the onset of economic restructuring at
the beginning of 90s, as well as the closure of the state farms, whose indices were
much higher than on individually-owned holdings. The great growth of the degree
of commercialization was noted after Poland become a member of EU and was
connected to the big increase of export of Polish food product do West European
countries.

Roman Kulikowski : Changes and Spatial Differentiation in Polish Agriculture.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 98-108. p. Discussion Papers, Special
ROMAN
106
KULIKOWSKI
Figure 4
Value of commercial agricultural production in PLN per hectare
of agricultural land, 2006

Source: Author’s elaboration according to Geografia rolnictwa Polski 2007.
The national value of agricultural gross output measured in zł per 1 ha of agri-
cultural attained the value of 4,079 zł (nearly 1800 USD) in 2006. There are his-
torically conditioned regional differences in the levels of agricultural development
and in the values of land productivity in Poland. High levels of land productivity
characterised Greater Poland (Wielkopolska), Kujawy and Lower Silesia, as well
as agricultural suburban zones of big agglomerations with specialization in horti-
culture. The lowest level of the index mentioned was noted in central and eastern
provinces where small-scale individual holdings dominate and part of them are
subsistence farms.
Another important measure of agricultural efficiency is the value of agricultural
production per person actively employed in agriculture. In the study here reported
labour productivity is shown through the value of gross agricultural production in
zł per person fully employed in agriculture. In 1999 the index attained 14,355 PLN.

Roman Kulikowski : Changes and Spatial Differentiation in Polish Agriculture.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 98-108. p. Discussion Papers, Special
CHANGES AND SPATIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF POLISH AGRICULTURE
107
The spatial differentiation of this index is closely connected with the size of farms,
the level of education of farmers, the level of mechanisation, as well as the degree
of specialisation in agricultural production.
Conclusions
Polish agriculture is diversified across space due to natural conditions and histori-
cal past. Stagnation or even regression of agricultural production had been brought
about by the technological backwardness of this sector of the economy and the
worsening profitability of agricultural production at the beginning of 90s. Further
processes of transformation of Polish agriculture are, however, unavoidable, al-
though they will be significantly distributed over time, and connected with Polish
EU-membership after 2004. Inclusion into EU agricultural policy and the liberali-
sation of agricultural trade with this group of countries may in the future be a factor
of development of agricultural production (Poczta, 2008). Nevertheless, according
to Woś (2001) besides certain benefits, which are promised by integration, at the
same time it demands certain real concessions, such as the loss of national inde-
pendence, broadening the range of risks and social fears of the unknown future.
The hope for the resolution of these problems resides not so much in agriculture
itself as in the remaining links of the food economy, which, following the model of
the Western European countries, ought to form in time a food system chain united
by the common interest, rather than a set of isolated links. The present Polish food
economy is characterised by too high employment in agriculture and too high per-
centage of agricultural production in the total value of production of this sector.
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Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 98-108. p. Discussion Papers, Special
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