Discussion Papers 2009.
Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins 60-70. p.
CHANGES IN COOPERATION ALONG THE
HUNGARIAN AND SLOVAKIAN BORDER
ISTVÁN MEZEI
The main characteristic features of the Hungarian
and Slovakian border
The present borders of Hungary were marked out in the peace negotiations of 1920.
Since these borders were not drawn along the dividing line of the regions, they
were the reason for a lot of difficulties both in a social and in an economic sense.
To solve this contradictory situation, several attempts were made after 1990 and
especially after the accession to the European Union in 2004.
With its length of 678 km, the Hungarian and Slovakian border is our longest
border. Its western section is the Danube, in the east it spreads from the River Ipoly
to the River Tisza. The bridge between Esztergom and Štúrovo was the last to be
rebuilt of all the bridges destroyed in World War II, and what is more, in as late as
2001, which clearly symbolises the relations between the two countries.
Along both sides of the border there are areas of different stages of develop-
ment. The most developed borderland area is that around Bratislava, which is a part
of a region of European significance, that of Vienna–Bratislava–Győr. This region
is becoming a real agglomeration area. The border here ensures more favourable
possibilities for those seeking them and divides the tumult of blocks of flats and the
residential areas of family houses. Slovakian citizens who want to get rid of the
crowdedness of the expensive flats in Bratislava can find more convenience in the
cheaper housing of Hungarian villages which also means a new lifestyle for them.
They benefit from the differences in living standards and settlement structure that
are due to the existence of the border.
The next section of the Danube divides the more industrialised Hungarian cities
from the agricultural regions in Southern Slovakia. The available jobs in Hungarian
towns attract thousands of commuters from the agricultural area of Slovakian Žitný
ostrov. Those living in this region have much poorer living conditions than those
coming from Bratislava.
The lifestyle of those living on the two sides of the border section from the
River Ipoly to the River Tisza is very similar. These settlements have very few job
opportunities and there is a high rate of unemployment. Towns and villages on
neither side of the border can offer appropriate jobs to those living here. Of all the
towns of the region along this part of the border, it is only Košice that is unique

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special

Table 1
The main figures regarding regions and counties along the border
Region/county
Agricul-
Industry Services  Rate of  Secondary  Higher
Younger  Hungarian
Gypsy Slovak
ture
employ- education  education
than 16
ment
Bratislava

7.34 26.42 66.24 55.32 29.80 17.04 16.09 4.58 0.13 91.26
Trnava
6.12 29.01 64.87 51.20 24.01  6.04 18.79 23.73  0.57 73.91
Nitra

7.62 27.56 64.82 50.59 24.00  6.47 18.30 27.56  0.66 70.05
Banská
Bystrica
7.34 26.42 66.24 50.11 25.77  7.01 19.36 11.75  2.34 83.65
Košice
5.68 22.74 71.58 51.76 26.07  7.51 21.47 11.15  3.89 81.82
5
regions
together
5.68 24.12 70.21 51.08 25.89  8.67 18.93 15.74  1.64 80.03
Slovakia
5.38 27.54 67.08 51.08 25.62 7.87 20.07 9.68 1.67 85.79
Győr-Moson-Sopron  5.77 39.50 54.73 42.08 17.84  6.68 21.98 95.61  0.38  0.04
Komárom-Esztergom  4.39 45.33 50.28 39.16 19.86  8.60 18.67 94.12  0.84  1.61
Pest
1.50 25.18 73.32 40.63 17.77  7.25 19.03 92.40  0.93  0.46
Nógrád
3.01 43.54 53.44 32.99 18.66  7.03 19.65 96.03  4.52  1.58
Heves
5.60 38.71 55.69 33.78 17.10  5.77 19.27 95.95  3.88  0.22
Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 3.88 34.32 61.79 28.12 24.21 14.35 16.93 96.58  6.26  0.30
6 counties together
2.68
30.47
66.85
37.96 21.75 11.35 18.27 95.01  2.75  0.64
Hungary
5.50 32.86 61.64 36.19 19.12  9.16 19.19 94.40  2.02  0.38
Source: Census, 2001. KSH, Štatistický úrad SR.

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special

Table 1
Selected statistical data concerning the economic development of the commune of Dobra Szczecińska against
the background of Poland
Feature
Dobra
Mean in rural
Feature
Dobra
Mean in rural
Szczecińska
communes
Szczecińska
communes
Area (km2)
110.3
199 474
Average area of a dwelling
110.3 86
(m2)
Population
11 455
10 763 576
Dwelling area per person (m2)
36.1 24.5
Population density (per-
103.9 54
Share of dwellings with bath-
97 84.6
sons/km2)
room (%)
Share of population in produc-
80.9 66.1
Share of dwellings with mu-
99.5 87.8
tive age1 (%)
nicipal or own water supply
(%)
Share of population using
97.5
71.6
NGOs per 1,000 inhabitants 1.6
1.8
water supply network (%)
Share of population using
82.3 20.5
Private businesses per 1,000
211.3 91.9
sewage network (%)
inhabitants in productive age2
Population number per
5946 6756
Own revenues of communal
1410 656
pharmacy
budget per inhabitant (PLN)
Population number per library
2973
2552
Expenditures of communes
1438 1837
per inhabitant (PLN)
Note: 1Males: 15–64 years of age, females: 15–59 years of age; 2Males: 18–64 years of age, females: 18–59 years of age.
Danych..., 2006.

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special
CHANGES IN COOPERATION ALONG THE HUNGARIAN AND SLOVAKIAN BORDER
63
The whole of Slovakia is less industrialised than Hungary, and its southern re-
gions together with the comparatively high number of agricultural districts along
the Hungarian border show lower values. Those employed in services represent a
high rate in both countries but it is mostly due to the two capitals. Slovakia shows a
considerable advantage in the rate of employment within the whole population. As
for schooling, there are more people having a certificate of secondary education in
Slovakia; in the northern counties of Hungary, however, the rate of graduates is
higher. Slovakian regions have a younger population than the neighbouring Hun-
garian counties. Both countries have ethnic minorities, but Hungary is more homo-
geneous, the rate of the majority is higher. The Hungarian and, respectively, the
Slovak population, as the dominant nationalities, make up the majority in the
counties and regions of both countries. There is a high number of Hungarians in the
regions along the Danube, but the continuous Hungarian zone is broken in the area
to the east of the River Ipoly. On the Hungarian side the Slovak ethnic minority
lives sporadically. The figures show that, in our northern counties, to the east of the
River Ipoly there is a higher rate of Gypsy ethnic minority compared with the na-
tional average. Similarly, their number is the highest in the long Košice and the
large Banská Bystrica regions on the Slovak side. Their number is much lower on
the two banks of the Danube.
The typical forms of cross-border cooperation
Construction of highways
Compared to the settlements inside the country, those along the border are all in a
more disadvantageous situation. This can especially be seen in the fact that their
transport infrastructure is limited. Transport is all the more important because it
makes the development of economic relations possible, i.e. provides a living for the
inhabitants of the settlement. The existence of the border usually makes transport,
and, with it, economic life more difficult, therefore discussions about cross-border
cooperation usually focus on transport.
At the turn of 2007 and 2008, right after opening the border, the inhabitants of
the villages close to the border began to clean and renew crossing points. These
minor roads ease the isolation of the local people and drive them back to the centu-
ries-long coexistence. There are roads that connect towns. After the Eszkáros road
is built, the distance from Sátoraljaújhely to Košice and to Košice airport will be
halved; i.e. it will only be 45 km.
Rebuilding the bridges over the river Ipoly would play a similar role, because
they would mostly be small-scale investments. Building paths between villages,
bridges connecting minor roads would be necessary.

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special

64
ISTVÁN MEZEI
The joint activity involves a lot of new phenomena. In a politological sense it is
a novelty that those participating in the cooperation do not act upon superior orders
or a central party decision. The joint work was organized by local government rep-
resentatives and mayors. Village people, who agreed with them, also took part in
the work. Voluntary activity involves civil cooperation because local governments
have neither the necessary budget, nor the competencies to reconstruct or build
roads between settlements. It is a sign of a wide joining of social forces that work-
ers of the neighbouring gravel and stone pits and cement factories, as well as those
living in the area, took part in the road-construction work.
The opposite national feeling can also be experienced along the opened border:
defying the European Union, the mayor of the part of the town which used to be-
long to Sátoraljaújhely but is a Slovak settlement called Slovenské Novo Mesto
today, is not willing to remove the concrete flower-boxes from the road so as to
make transport impossible there.
Revival of traditions
The cooperation of the settlements that are close to each other focuses on the re-
vival of traditions, which is quite understandable after the long separation. The
local governments examine what traditions they have in the fields of built heritage,
landscape or human activities (e.g. folk or town customs, cultural values). They
write projects concerning traditional crafts and famous products. However, these
traditions will be transformed and modernised gradually. Modernisation of tradi-
tions means that the individual and common values that have been rediscovered are
made suitable for being sold on the markets of tourism and will become a new
means of subsistence. This is how wine tourism goes together with the world of
spas and aqua parks, offering specialities together with hiking tours or sports (cy-
cling, rowing, and rock-climbing), etc. This is how the Danube has once again
become a link and an opportunity for future development. The Eurovelo 6 interna-
tional cycle track on the bank of the river, as well as the ports and infrastructure
necessary for water tourism, are also being planned.
As an example, we would like to describe the relations between the Hídverő
(Bridge Building) settlements in the estuary of the River Žitava. This association
was set up by the Rákóczi Alliance at the end of the 90s. The main idea was that
the former historical interdependence had to be revived and, in an abstract sense,
bridges had to be built between the settlements on the two sides of the Danube, as a
result of which cooperation may be easier in the future, and the microregions
emerging in this way will be more powerful before the different forums.
Association membership significantly contributed to the development of the
settlement Neszmély, a village organizing the cooperation. It can utilize the infra-

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special
CHANGES IN COOPERATION ALONG THE HUNGARIAN AND SLOVAKIAN BORDER
65
structure necessary for the organization of the Bridge Building Days, (e.g. commu-
nity area made of wood, cooking facilities for several thousand people on the bank
of the Danube), on other occasions as well. Organised by an American travel
agency, a boat cruise always stops on a regular basis at the village, where a wide
range of programmes awaits tourists. The utilisation of the facilities of tourism is of
great importance for the other river bank, as well. It is a plan of theirs to build a
‘Europe’ village in the territory of the two villages opposite each other, where the
traditional village architecture of the member states of the Union would be exhib-
ited. Visitors will be admitted to the exhibitions on both sides of the border, and
their visit will only be complete by having seen both.
Parallel facilities can also contribute to the relations of two settlements. The
thermal water supply on both banks of the Danube is exploited in a similar way.
The smaller Slovakian settlements having a spa join the colourful programme fa-
cilities of the bigger Hungarian towns. The baths that are close to each other are
complementary because in most cases aqua parks have been built in the neighbour-
hood of spas.
The motivation to build new roads and to revive traditions was national sym-
pathy, which was then replaced by planned, project-based cooperation.
Planned cooperation
Project-based cooperation of the tender market
A typical feature of project-based cooperation is that it focuses on some kind of
joint investment. The investment usually requires joining forces for one particular
purpose, which, as shown by the above mentioned examples, can be organized as
voluntary work, i.e. with their own resources. However, to carry out large-scale
tasks, a larger sum of money is needed, but due to tight resources, the backward
situation and the compulsion of money acquisition, they can only carry them out by
applying for tenders. This is how human demands will lead to projects. Since it is
in most cases good luck and not just needs that determine which settlement may get
into the favourable position of applying for a tender successfully, writing tenders
has become an everyday activity, whereas winning a tender is really unique.
In the beginning, cross-border cooperation was supported by the PHARE CBC
programme. Regarding the Hungarian and Slovakian border, two restrictions have
to be mentioned. On the one hand, it was only in 1999 that the possibility of a joint
tender became accessible for this section of the border, because formerly there had
been two attempts with the Austrians. The other restriction is that, although this is
the longest part of the border viewed from Hungary, it was granted the least sup-
port, i.e. 2 million euros, which remained unchanged year by year. There was a

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special

66
ISTVÁN MEZEI
change only in spending it, i.e. those who won tenders could carry out their tasks to
an ever increasing extent (Table 2).
In the course of the procedure the authorities modified the original practice, be-
cause, owing to the high number of demands, they divided the sum of money
meant for large-scale tenders into several parts in the last two rounds. If the money
that can be distributed is tight, then at least more people should be supported with
it. In case of small sum grants the conclusion can be drawn that the rate of the ten-
der activity of the towns was higher, and more applications were submitted from
the counties to the east of the Danube. The large difference between the applied
and the actually spent sum underlines the former remark that it was good luck that
played the most important part in who would be the winner from among several
good applications (Mezei, 2004). Local governments, in both their domestic and
international activities, could experience the poor choice of the tender market.
They are forced to participate by the tight municipality incomes. A thorough ex-
amination of the incomes could only provide exact information about the income
structure of the individual local governments, among them that of local govern-
ments in the borderland, the proportion of tender money within their incomes and
about whether the tender incomes of local governments in the borderland has in-
creased so that they can ease their backward situation, and whether the proportion
of the grants allocated to them has been increased or not.
Table 2
PHARE CBC programmes along the Hungarian and Slovak border

Approved
Contracted
Completion of
Supported projects
support
the programme
large small
1995 1,500,000
723,116
1999.07.31 4  –
1996 1,500,000
1,498,580
2000.12.31 4 20
1999 2,000,000
1,793,815
2002.12.31 1 11
2000 2,000,000
1,969,670
2003.12.31 1 11
2001 2,000,000
1,998,659
2004.11.30 1  9
2002 2,000,000
1,998,659
2005.11.30
15 11
2003 2,000,000
1,953,459
2006.11.30
18  5
Source: Váti Kht.

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special
CHANGES IN COOPERATION ALONG THE HUNGARIAN AND SLOVAKIAN BORDER
67
Consequences of cooperation
Revealing the actual conditions and the analysis of the situation have to precede the
preparation of common plans. On this basis plans can be drawn up. Situation
analysis is based on an increasingly thorough expertise, sometimes with the contri-
bution of researchers, sometimes by involving local experts. Analyses are the re-
sults of thorough statistical, data collecting work. They analyse the conditions of
settlements or those of a region, and on this basis try to outline the development
that can be expected or planned. While planning the cooperation, they have to sur-
vey geographical space, population, employment, education, economic environ-
ment and transport infrastructure. Therefore, it can be assumed that more and more
principles of sciences, i.e. those of geography, sociology and economy will be used
by the general public. Several trades are represented by those involved in the plan-
ning process. Besides the representatives and experts of local governments, the
experts of administration, actors of the business sector and entrepreneurial interest
protection, and civil organizations are also involved.
The structure of the institutional system of planning or the method of its opera-
tion is still not complete. The subject of development also keeps changing. In the
beginning, governments were forced to develop backward regions, i.e. large re-
gions, and then regional units, i.e. microregions around cities became privileged. In
recent times, with the growth pole programme, national centres have become
privileged; nowadays, however, the development of cities gains increasing impor-
tance.
It is the English language that could be used to overcome language difficulties,
but neither party is really prepared for that, and besides, local people do not really
think it would be a natural way of communication. The young generation still at
school is expected to be able to use English as a mediatory language, but in real life
it is still not known which will be the language used to maintain relations. As a
result of opening the border, Hungarian language proficiency has gained apprecia-
tion. Today there is a need for educated young people who can speak Hungarian,
Slovak and English, especially in settlement and regional development, as well as
in the business sector.
Plans to organize joint services
The most complete form of communications is when, disregarding the border, ser-
vices are combined to fulfil human and marked demands. This is the most practical
form of cooperation, which is mostly backed up by institutions, e.g. the communal
service provider, school, health care or social provision as services meeting human
needs, as well as actors of the economy that observe market needs so as to earn

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special

68
ISTVÁN MEZEI
profits. The role of the mediator is played by county municipalities. They want to
find the actors that carry out similar tasks and the parties that are entitled to take
part in talks (state, local government, business and civil representatives) and they
make them start negotiations. They provide the necessary administrative, office and
legal experience to help provide combined services.
The institutions involved in providing the service in a direct way (hospitals,
medical services, ambulance, primary and secondary schools, social institutions,
communal service providers, etc.) inform each other about their strengths, free
capacity, as well as their weaknesses or capacity needs.
Urgent health provision is accepted and regulated by international agreements.
However, in the case of programmed, planned and controllable health care de-
pending on the condition of the patients, social security systems should agree con-
cerning the expenses of health care. Health care is rather costly and needs a lot of
medical instruments. Therefore the possibilities of a fairer distribution of burden
have to be examined. They have to find out who and in what field has something to
offer to the other party in return for something else. The first step to be taken is to
survey specialist health care, followed by the examination of settlement systems.
Costs of treatments are different in different countries, there is a considerable dif-
ference in prices between the individual countries. Slovakian insurers do not think
it is worth making the more expensive services in Hungarian hospitals available for
patients of Slovakian citizenship. Developing relations with the units on the other
side of the border is made all the more difficult by the fact that Hungarian health
care conditions have been unpredictable for years.
Regarding education, social provision and every other service, agreement has to
be reached about covering the state or local government costs of the provided ser-
vice. In education national solidarity has solved the emerging problems so far. In
the secondary schools of the towns close to the border there are a comparatively
high number of students who are not of the Hungarian nationality, but there are a
lot of maintainers who share their costs. For example, in the town Sátoraljaújhely,
there are secondary schools maintained by the county, the town and the church,
too, or in 2007 the maintenance rights of the Slovakian-Hungarian bilingual pri-
mary school were taken over by the Local Government of the National Slovak
Minority. In this way the costs of the about 100 students studying in the town are
borne by several maintainers.
The joint organization of the services means that both countries have to harmo-
nise their laws and regulations.

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
In: Old and New Borderlines /Frontiers/ Margins.
Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special
CHANGES IN COOPERATION ALONG THE HUNGARIAN AND SLOVAKIAN BORDER
69
The multiplicator effect of cross-border relations
Hungarian and Slovakian relations provide several examples for the multiplicator
effect, i.e. the launched development persuades the decision-makers of the two
countries for further cooperation to an increasing extent.
The people living in the borderland need transport on fast and short roads. Be-
sides the direct and small-scale connections, roads are also needed to make possi-
ble the development of relations between countries, or even large regions including
several countries possible. An example for this is the new bridge between Eszter-
gom and Štúrovo, and after it had been built, further plans appeared. Mária Valéria
Bridge, which was inaugurated in 2001, symbolized the end of World War II, be-
cause this had been the last bridge ruined in the war in Europe. In real life it pro-
vides the opportunity for the two countries to develop actual, everyday relations.
However, after transport had been started on the bridge, new problems arose.
Commercial relations between the towns and regions on the two banks of the river
turned out to be developing at such a quick rate that the bridge connecting city
centres soon became too narrow. Another, bigger bridge has to be built not far from
the town to meet the increased needs of cargo transportation.
This demand, which the mayors of the two cities also mentioned, leads to a
question concerning Europe: where should the new north-south direction European
transport corridor be located, where should the Helsinki corridor signed V/C be?
Two regions are competing: the Ipoly Valley (Nógrád County) and the Esztergom–
Štúrovo region (Komárom-Esztergom County). Both refer to Budapest, the most
dynamic centre of the Carpathian Basin being close, when they want to emphasize
their own significance. When making a decision, the European Union will also take
a stand while taking the interests of several countries into consideration, since the
plan will affect the north-south connection of Eastern-Central Europe. Hungarian
planning affects the transport problem of the whole of Europe, i.e. that it is mostly
the east-west transport lines that have been built, but north-south transport lines
would also be necessary. The needs of the two towns have coincided with the ideas
of those who would like to build a transport network of Europe.
Similarly, the development of the international transport of the eastern part of
the country is also very complicated and important. The border was drawn in a way
that now the railway junction belongs to Ukraine. Getting there is only possible
from Hungarian Záhony and Slovakian Čierna. Roads have also been adjusted to
this triangle, excluding both Hungary and Slovakia from the usage of this impor-
tant communication junction. In this case, it is not a third country, but Ukraine that
is the third party in the ambition to restore the natural gravitation areas. Therefore,
to avoid the problems with Ukraine, a new communication corridor seems to be
developing from Finland, via the Baltic countries, Poland, Košice in Slovakia and
Miskolc in Hungary to the south (Molnár, 2007).

Mezei, István : Changes in Cooperation Along the Hungarian and Slovakian Border.
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Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 60-70. p. Discussion Papers, Special

70
ISTVÁN MEZEI
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