Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
CENTRE FOR REGIONAL STUDIES 
OF HUNGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
 
 

DISCUSSION PAPERS 
 
No. 75 
The Relation Systems 
of Metropolitan Areas 
 
 
Comparative Analyses of Capital City Regions by the Example of Budapest, 
Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya in Hungary and of Paris and Sens in France 
 
by 
Gabriella BARÁTH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Series editor 
Gábor LUX 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Pécs 
2009 
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Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
 
This paper is a shortened version of the PhD thesis of the author that has been 
finished in 2008. The paper summarises the main theoretical and empirical 
results of the related research activities. These investigations could not have 
been undertaken without the valuable help of my two professors, 
Prof. Viktória Szirmai DSc and Prof. Françoise Plet HDR. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ISSN 0238–2008 
ISBN 978 963 9899 21 6 
 
 
© Gabriella Baráth 
© Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2009 by Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. 
Technical editor: Ilona Csapó. Language editor: Gábor Lux. 
Printed in Hungary by Sümegi Nyomdaipari, Kereskedelmi és Szolgáltató Ltd., Pécs. 
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Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
CONTENTS 
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................   5 
1.1 The issue of the study ...........................................................................................   5 
1.2  The major objectives of the study .........................................................................   6 
1.3 Hypotheses ...........................................................................................................   8 
1.4 Sample areas .........................................................................................................   9 
1.5 Methods ..............................................................................................................   11 
2 Theoretical 
foundations ..............................................................................................   13 
2.1  Globalisation and urban development .................................................................  13 
3  A brief introduction of the research sites ....................................................................   18 
3.1 Székesfehérvár ....................................................................................................   18 
3.2 Tatabánya ...........................................................................................................   20 
3.3 Sens .................................................................................................................... 
  21 
4  The results of empirical researches ............................................................................   24 
4.1 Economic relations .............................................................................................   24 
4.1.1  Site selection – with special regard to the immigration of foreign 
capital ventures ........................................................................................   24 
4.1.2  Company centre – sub-centre relations ...................................................   28 
4.1.3  The territorial structure of the consumption of economic actors .............   28 
4.1.4 Supplier 
relations.....................................................................................   32 
4.1.5 Labour 
migration .....................................................................................   34 
4.2 Social relations ...................................................................................................   34 
4.2.1 Migration 
processes .................................................................................   34 
4.2.2  The spatial structure of residential consumption .....................................   40 
4.2.3  Cities and their inhabitants: integration, satisfaction, participation .........   41 
5 New 
scientific 
results .................................................................................................   42 
References ........................................................................................................................   46 
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Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
List of figures 
Figure 1  The steps of selecting the sample areas ..........................................................   11 
Figure 2  The geographical location of our research sample areas in Hungary .............   19 
Figure 3  The geographical location of the research sample areas in France ................   22 
Figure 4  The distribution of major employers by different economic sectors ..............   23 
Figure 5  Changes in the number of operating businesses between 1996 
and 2003 .........................................................................................................   24 
Figure 6  The number of firms immigrating into Bourgogne region from, Île-de- 
France and Rhône–Alpes regions and the number of firms out-migrating   
to these regions (between 1996 and 2001) .....................................................   26 
Figure 7  The consumption of economic actors in Hungarian cities .............................   29 
Figure 8  The distribution of services used by the enterprises of Yonne County 
in other counties by county ............................................................................   30 
Figure 9  The share of services used by foreign and Hungarian firms in Budapest ......   31 
Figure 10  The share of services used in Budapest between the firms of Tatabánya 
and Székesfehérvár ........................................................................................   32 
Figure 11  The geographical dimensions of supplier activities .......................................   33 
Figure 12  The ratio of labour migrants out of the total employees living in same 
locality (2001) ................................................................................................   35 
Figure 13  The ratio of economically active population working in the Paris region ......   36 
Figure 14  Changes in the population number between 1990 and 2001 ..........................   37 
Figure 15  New results .....................................................................................................   43 
List of tables 
Table 1 
The number of cities with over 500 thousand inhabitants grouped by  
city size and continents (1975, 2000, 2015) ...................................................   15 
Table 2 
Factors of agglomeration, the elements of relation systems in urban areas 
as specified by the cited scientific literature ..................................................   16 
Table 3 
The elements of the relation systems investigated by our research ................   18 
Table 4 
The number of firms immigrating and out-migrating from Paris between 
2000 and 2005 ................................................................................................   25 
Table 5 
The distribution of services used by the enterprises of Yonne County 
outside Yonne County by county and service sector .....................................   30 
Table 6 
Changes in the population of the city of Sens and its urban area between 
1990 and 1999 ................................................................................................   38 
Table 7 
Changes in the population of our investigated cities and their urban area 
between 1990 and 1999 ..................................................................................   39 
4
 
 




Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
1 Introduction 
1.1  The issue of the study1 
Our study analyses changes undergoing in the relation system of metropolitan 
areas2 and the issues of social and economic relations arising from the restructur-
ing of spatial and regional disparity systems. 
Global-scale economic, social and political integration, the processes of global 
urbanisation, globalising urban networks and the transformation of their sub-
systems are increasing the importance of large cities and their metropolitan areas. 
They are squeezing out the earlier systems of spatial relations having shaped up 
behind nation-state boundaries in the past. All these trends are also manifested by 
the vigorously increasing importance of cities (Barta, 1998; Cséfalvay, 1999; 
Enyedi, 2001, 2003, 2006; Knox, 2002). 
The spatial structuring force of cities and metropolitan areas is leaving its 
marks on the relation system of cities and their urban areas as well. The earlier 
hierarchical, mono-centric and core-periphery3 based spatial disparity model of 
urban areas is now in transition (Ascher, 1995; Baron  et al., 2005; Barta – 
Beluszky
, 1999; Enyedi, 2003; Merlin, 2003; Mirloup, 2002; Szirmai et al. 2007).  
The social, economic and environmental impacts of the newly structured and 
urbanised regions (Enyedi, 2001, 2003) will reconfigure the system of earlier 
spatial disparities (Beckouche et al. 1997; Marcuse, 1989; Szirmai, 2004). Besides 
(and partly instead of) monocentric and hierarchical schemed relations, horizontal 
cooperation models based on the functional division of labour and networked 
                                                           
1  This study summarises the results of the author’s PhD dissertation titled ’The Relation Systems of 
Metropolitan Areas – Comparative Analyses in Capital City Regions by the Examples of 
Budapest, Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya in Hungary and of Paris and Sens in france’. The disserta-
tion was written under a double supervised doctoral programme at the University of Pécs Faculty 
of Business and Economics Doctoral School of Regional Policy and Economics and at the Uni-
versity of Paris, Doctoral School of Social Sciences. The consultants were Prof. Dr. Viktória 
Szirmai and Prof. Dr. Françoise Plet. The present study, beyond drafting the major theoretical 
findings, focuses on presenting the results of empirical research. 
2  The study defines urban areas as territories with functional social and economic relations, while 
urban areas being in key positions by their population number and functions and linked to 
European and global urban networks, are described by the terms of metropolitan area, urban area 
and metropolitan space. 
3  The core-periphery model is used in the analysis on the basis of Szirmai (2007, 741) from a socio-
geographical and sociological perspective. In the socio-geographical sense, core means a spatial 
centre of a certain geographical unit while periphery means the outskirts of the given 
geographical unit. Between core and outer peripheries there may be variation by historical 
perspective as well as economic, infrastructural, functional and social differences or disparities. In 
the sociological sense, core and periphery are expressing the social status of the population living 
within the same geographical space. In the ‘traditional’ core-periphery model the highest position 
in the social ranking hierarchy is taken in the core area. 
  5
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
organisational systems will operate as the driving engines of spatial organisation 
(Fujita – Thisse, 1997; Mirloup, 2002).  
The restructuring of the internal relation system of metropolitan areas (Berger, 
2004;  Béhar – Estèbe, 1998; Burdack – Dövényi – Kovács, 2004), the discon-
tinuation of the traditional hierarchical model of settlement relations, the past 
inherited and new dependencies and autonomies, the co-operation and spatial 
integration systems built on the functional division of labour, the reorganised and 
restructuring disparities are all integrating metropolitan spaces into complex ter-
ritories bound together by several ties. This process creates dynamic territories 
and settlements of urban areas as well as backward settlements lagging behind 
dynamically developing regions. 
Changes in relation systems have various concrete social and economic out-
comes (for example the emergence of Foreign Direct Investment, the restructuring 
of the economy, the restructuring of jobs, changes in labour migration trends, and 
the reshaping of social structure) which make their impacts in settlements of dif-
ferent social and economic development level; therefore, in settlements with vary-
ing skills of accommodation. 

The concrete background of social and economic development, the position in 
urban hierarchy, the administrative, social, economic and institutional functions, 
the historically formed roles are all determining a settlement’s receptivity attitude, 
as well as its integrative and accommodation skills. From several aspects they 
may influence both the processes of urban development and the autonomous and 
special features of the individual components. Local socio-spatial and economic 
context also specifies what impacts can be triggered and to what extent. The rela-
tionship between impacts and receptivity attitude influences economic and social 
outcomes of these relations as well. 
Thus, the changing relations of metropolitan areas and the reconfiguration of 
spatial disparities are ruled by complex interactions. Their research is very im-
portant as it highlights the necessity of creating a different strategy from the pre-
sent and emphasises the importance of thinking in regional dimensions and of 
cooperation. 
1.2  The major objectives of the study 
The primary objective of our study is investigating the relations of two metropo-
lises situated in a diverse social and economic environment as well as analysing 
the interrelations of central cities and their urban environment which depend on 
the impact forces mediated by the central city. The changing relation systems of 
metropolitan areas, the reconfiguration of regional spatial disparities and their 
major outcomes are analysed by the examples of Budapest, the capital city of 
6
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Hungary, and Paris, a Western European capital. In the case of Budapest, we have 
investigated the city’s relation system with Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, while 
in the case of Paris, the city’s relations established with the city of Sens were the 
objects of our research. Our research provided an opportunity for comparing a 
Western capital city with an East Central European one; a global with a globalis-
ing metropolitan area; and for a scientific research of the relation system of cities 
in capital regions selected by predefined criteria. 
The major objectives of the study: 
1. One of the major objectives of the study was to assess the economic and so-
cial relation system of central capital cities and selected cities in their region and 
to analyse the elements of these relations. 

When examining economic relations, the site selection policy of the economic 
actors of our investigated cities with special regard to the immigration of global 
economy was investigated. The characteristic features of the spatial location of 
company centres and sub-centres were also identified, which served as an indica-
tor of the existence of various corporate functions with the quality of local and 
urban facilities necessary for their provision. The system of inter-firm supplier 
relations was also mapped with the indicators of relations and labour migration 
defined by the spatial structure of the consumption of economic actors and of the 
utilisation of services. The analysis of social relations is in strong correlation with 
the economic relations to be revealed, comprising the spatial restructuring of 
population and the investigation of residential migrations.  
2. The other main objective of our study was assessing the impacts arising 
from the relation systems established between central capital cities and the cities 
selected for our research. 

When examining economic relations, the structural features of urban econo-
mies changed by the impact of the economy of capital cities, as well as the roles 
of economic sectors (industrial and tertiary), the relationship of global and local 
economies, and the autonomous and large city centre-dependent development 
elements of urban economies, were investigated. 
The analysis of social impacts encompasses changes in the relationship be-
tween the residential area and place of work of citizens living in our area of re-
search (or in its neighbour cities) as well as the outmigration of labour force, the 
changes of employment structure and the relationship between cities and their 
inhabitants. The analysis of social impacts implies the problems of dependencies 
and autonomies. 
3. The third major objective of our study was investigating the impacts of new 
spatial formations on economy and urban development. 
  7
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Under this research objective we studied how the transformation of urban area 
networks, modernisation, social and economic integration, the different new de-
mands of urban development create inner socio-spatial disparities in urban areas 
and whether they are encouraging spatial equalisation or generating new types of 
disparities. 
Our study interprets social and economic outcomes as processes having been 
generated by the reconfigured spatial formations. Within this context the forma-
tion of social and economic cooperation systems, the re-creation of socio-spatial 
disparities, the increase of social conflicts and the emerging demands of urban 
development are examined. 
4. Our last research objective is uncovering the different reasons standing be-
hind the relationship between capital cities and the selected cities; historical de-
terminations, the identification of global economic and social processes, the rec-
ognition of similarities and differences arising from Western and Eastern Central 
European location. 
1.3  Hypotheses 
1)  In the context of capital city and the selected cities, the analyzed factors vary 
by country and urban settlement type (traditional city, new city) intensity. 
2)  Developing into a metropolitan area makes up new territorial structures which 
expand the earlier hierarchical core-periphery relation system by introducing a 
new scheme of inter-settlement relations based on horizontal cooperation and 
the functional division of labour. These new spatial processes are emerging in 
the context of our investigated capital cities and the cities in their regions as 
well.
 
3)  Thus, in the urban areas of our research the new spatial relations create a new 
system of disparities and they are changing core-periphery relations as well. 
This process creates new urban area sub-centres within the metropolitan area. 
Their most important feature is that they are bound by several ties to the urban 
centre and they are capable for performing certain functions; they have the 
ability to increase their role in spatial organisation and give a greater dynamic 
force to the development of their environment. The cities involved in our re-
search are presumably such kind of metropolitan area sub-centres.
  
4) The emergence of multidirectional cooperation-based relation systems, the 
functional division of labour among settlements and their outcomes such as 
territorial specialisation and spatial integration – according to our hypothesis – 
reconfigures the earlier hierarchical inter-settlement relation dominated 
scheme of spatial disparities

8
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
5) Our study investigates the relation system of metropolitan areas which have 
some dependant and some autonomous elements. Our paper is built on the hy-
pothesis that the economic and social relation system of central capital cities 
and (selected) cities in their region affect the autonomous and dependant ele-
ments of urban development on a varying scale.
 
6) The new spatial relations resulting from the growth into a metropolitan area 
scaled size are organised rather on functional than administrative basis. For 
this reason it can be assumed that the relation systems of capital city regions 
and their impacts are surpassing the administrative boundaries of capital city 
agglomeration zones. 

7) Another of our hypotheses is that the space-forming and urban development 
impacts of capital cities are not primarily dependant on the population number 
based size of the selected cities. 
1.4 Sample areas 
The research areas were selected on the basis of two major groups of criteria. On 
the one hand, by taking all quantifiable parameters into account, and on the other 
hand, on the basis of non-quantifiable but urban function related factors. 
The selection criteria were as follows:  
  One of the starting hypotheses of our research was that the relation systems 
of capital city regions and their impacts are surpassing the administrative 
boundaries of capital city agglomeration zones. For verifying this hypothe-
sis we considered very important to select sample cities from outside of the 
agglomeration zone of Budapest and Paris

  The findings in the professional literature also pointed out that the investiga-
tion of the relation systems of metropolitan areas and of their impacts can 
hardly be carried out on the basis of a wide-scale factor group analysis.4 In 
case of all investigated cities the access time of the capital city from each 
selected city was a common key element and parameter (Aguilera – Mignot, 
2003; Belliot, 2006; Giband, 2003; Gilli, 2002; Hardi, 2002; Mirloup, 2002; 
Mokos, 2004; Potentials for…, 2005). For this reason, when selecting the 
                                                           
4 1. Changes in population number, migration processes, suburbanisation; 2. Housing, changes in 
housing conditions; 3. The development of the basic infrastructure of settlements; 4. The devel-
opment of residential infrastructural supply; 5. Transport connections; 6. Labour migration; 7. 
Commuting (place of work-school); 8. The relations of economic organisations in general; 9. Site 
selection; 10. Supplier relations; 11. The relations of company headquarters and sub-centres; 12. 
The consumption of economic actors, the utilisation of services; 13. The outsourcing of different 
functions, residential consumption; 14. Changes in social structure; 15. Relations of research in-
stitutes. 
  9
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
sample cities, an equal travel time to each city from the capital was a very 
important selection criterion into the sample. The access time of 60 minutes 
was specified also by following the guidelines of the relevant scientific lit-
erature (Grandwaux, 1991; Potentials for…, 2005).5 
  Another limitation criterion of the sample areas was the role of the so-called 
‘satellite’ (Hungarian) or ‘sentry’ (French) cities had in functional urban ar-
eas
 at the time of an earlier investigation (Gilli, 2003a; Közép… 2006). By 
applying this filter the number of potential cities in the French capital city 
region could fairly precisely be reduced.6 
  Labour migration towards capital cities was another quantifiable selection 
criterion of the research area. Scientific literature pointed out that the attrac-
tion of labour force is one of the key elements in analysing the relation sys-
tems of metropolitan areas.7 On the basis of the relevant parameter values in 
Hungary, three cities (Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Gyöngyös with a 7–
10% labour migration ratio to the capital city among local labourers), while 
in France, five cities (Chartres, Évreux, Compiègne, Montargis and Sens: 7–
10%) were eligible for investigation.  
  For a further limitation of the number of potential sample cities we exam-
ined the differences in their role. Cities of differing type i.e. traditional and 
so-called new cities are presumably accommodating the impacts of capital 
cities in a different way. In the capital city region of Budapest the two dif-
ferent city types best represented by Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, two 
cities with different historical and urbanisation background but pursuing a 
similar strategy of urban development since the regime change of the 1990s 
(Keune, 2001). 
  In France, only one city could be involved into the research project, selected 
on the basis of the assumption that the spatial formation and the urban de-
velopment impacts of capital cities are not primarily dependant on the size 
(population number) of the selected cities and their urban areas. To verify 
this of all the potential French sample areas (due to its largely differing 
                                                           
5  On the basis of the above indicators there were five cities which were eligible for investigation in 
the capital city region of Budapest (Tatabánya, Székesfehérvár, Gyöngyös, Kecskemét and Duna-
újváros), while in the French capital city region there were far more suitable cities with favour-
able geographical location (motorways, good public road and railway connections) with 60 min-
utes of travel time from the capital city (Gilli, 2003a; Grandvaux, 1991). 
6  Chartre, Dreux, Evreux, Vernon, Compiègne, Château-Thierry, Sens and Montargis. 
7  The investigation of labour migration to capital cities in both countries was carried out on the 
basis of census data. In Hungary (2001) we analysed the ratio of commuters working in other 
county than their residential place out of the total employees of the cities involved in our research 
which by extending with the census data of cities of county rank was sufficient for evaluating la-
bour migration to the capital city. In France (1999) analysing the ratio of labour out-migrants into 
another region out of the total number of employees served as a basis for comparisons. 
10
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
population number from Hungarian sample cities), the city of Sens proved 
to be the most suitable one for our investigation. 
The selection criteria (similar geographical location, accessibility, functional 
urban area roles, an identical ratio of labour migration to the capital city, same 
type of urban settlement with different population number) were fully met by the 
cities of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya in Hungary and by the city of Sens in 
France (Figure 1). 
Figure 1 
The steps of selecting the sample areas 
 
Note: The figure indicated in the bracket shows the number of eligible areas for the specified re-
quirements. 
Source: Author’s construction. 
1.5 Methods 
The preparatory investigations of our study involved using a wide scale of in-
struments applied in social science research such as methods applied in social 
geography, sociology, regional science and regional statistics.  
Of all these, the first thing we did was the collection, processing and analysis 
of the relevant international and Hungarian literature, planning and development 
  11 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
documents. Our research in France had a big role in finding the literature cited 
here.8 
Besides the theoretical foundation of the research concept the analysis of proc-
esses in the French research sites (site selection factors, company centre – sub-
centre relations, labour migration, and social inequalities) was also partly built on 
the processing of French literature. 
The methods of empirical investigations can be summarised as follows: 
  Statistical data analysis.9 Statistical data analyses are linked to the empirical 
chapters such as site selection factors, company centre – sub-centre rela-
tions, other relations of economic actors, labour migration and the explora-
tion of social inequalities. 
  The author’s own empirical research10 concerning the urban development 
impact of the global economy, the relation system of suppliers, the con-
sumption of economic actors and the structure of the labour force. 
  Other empirical researches were carried out on the basis of a thematic ques-
tionnaire survey within the framework of a PhD research project by Central 
Transdanubian Research Group West Hungarian Research Institute CRS 
HAS. These research projects11 gave us access for investigating Hungarian 
and French research fields and for preparing in-depth and auxiliary inter-
views linked to our own studies. 
                                                           
8  The research project in France between 2004 and 2007 was funded by a bilateral cooperation 
programme between HAS-CNRS (CRS HAS WHRI CTRG, HAS Sociological Research Institute 
– UMR 7533 LADYSS, Université de Paris8; consultants: Prof. Dr. Viktória Szirmai, Prof. Dr. 
Françoise Plet). The research projects implemented under the cooperation programme are as fol-
lows: Metropolitan Inequalities and Social Conflicts and Living Manners, Lifestyle- and Types of 
Space Utilisation in Our Contemporary Urban Areas
) The co-funder of research programme was 
a research grant coordinated by the French Institute of Budapest and sponsored by the French 
Government. 
9  The investigation of the Hungarian and French research sites in all cases was carried out by 
analysing the latest statistical data which enabled us for making comparisons. The majority of 
statistical resources originated mostly from the 1999 census in France and from the 2001 census 
in Hungary. 
10 1. The  research  titled ’The Socio-spatial Impacts of the Global Economy’ under the Social 
Science Research Programme of National Importance. 2004–2005. 2. Questionnaire Survey of 
Firms employing a staff of more than 50 in Tatabánya and Székesfehérvár, 
Spring 2007. 
11 1. Research titled ‘Metropolitan Inequalities and Social Conflicts’ funded by a bilateral coopera-
tion programme between HAS-CNRS 2004–2005; 2. Research titled Living Manners, Lifestyle- 
and Types of Space Utilisation in Our Contemporary Urban Areas’
 funded by a HAS-CNRS bi-
lateral cooperation programme 2006–2007. 3. Research titled ‘Urban Areas. Socio-spatial Ine-
qualities and Conflicts. The Socio-spatial Factors of European Competitiveness’
. National Re-
search and Development Programme 2004–2007. (Consortium lead organisation: HAS 
Sociological Research Institute. Project leader: Prof. Dr. Viktória Szirmai; CRS HAS WHRI 
CTRG consortium member). 
12
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
  Re-analysing some partial results of the research projects of the Central 
Transdanubian Research Group West Hungarian Research Institute CRS 
HAS12 was also a significant data source contributing to our research 
encompassing the local, regional and regional roles of Székesfehérvár and 
Tatabánya, the policies of site selection, other relations of economic actors, 
the issues of labour migration and the trends of social inequalities. 
At the overall level, the study is based on 8 research projects carried out be-
tween 2000 and 2008. The number of single interviews prepared under this task is 
70 (30% of the interviews prepared were conducted in the French research area). 
Beyond this, our study utilises the results of two questionnaire surveys as well. 
2  Theoretical foundations 
2.1  Globalisation and urban development 
Globalisation affects urban development in several ways. It has such impacts as 
the increasing number of population, its regional differences, social inequalities, 
increasing social conflicts and the changing role of urban settlements. The forma-
tion of global urban networks and their sub-systems, the changing territorial 
structure and internal relation system of urban areas, and the increasing demand 
for the governance of urban areas also belong to this category. These impacts are 
felt in the different parts of the world (on different continents, in advanced and 
developing regions) with different intensity.  
Regarding the impacts of globalisation on European urban development, our 
study analyses three factors within the scope of its own problem areas. 
The first issue is the change of population which is regarded the most decisive 
factor of urban development. Its analysis is quite well reflective of the geographi-
cal differences of urban development. Besides the increasing population of urban 
settlements, the changing functions of cities are an important factor which also 
marks the place of cities and their urban areas in the global urban hierarchy and in 
global urban networks. The historical presentation of metropolitan theories is a 
good opportunity for tracing the major changes. This is a good way to understand 
how these cities, and through them, functions could and can join global urban 
networks. Of the European cities, our study considers defining and analysing the 
                                                           
12 1. Research titled ‘The Socio-economic Relation systems of Tatabánya and Its Environment (Tata 
and Oroszlány’ sponsored by PICS international comparative research programme. 2000–2001. 2. 
Research titled ‘The Site Selection Strategies of Multinational Firms in Székesfehérvár and Fejér 
County-Aspects of Increasing Competitiveness’
. 2001–2002; 3. Research titled ‘Spatial-Regional 
Relation Systems of Székesfehérvár’
. 2004. 
  13 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
position and role of Paris and Budapest within the global urban hierarchy as an is-
sue of high importance.  
And finally the impact analyses of the transformation of the territorial structure 
and relation system of urban areas are basing and marking up the future lines of 
empirical researches. 
The theoretical foundations of our empirical research can be summarised as 
follows:  
1) The analysis of the geographical differences has pointed out that in the 
European metropolitan areas facing the problems discussed in our study 
(including the metropolitan space of Budapest and Paris) a significant in-
crease of population cannot be expected (Table 1). The territorial restruc-
turing of population within these urban areas is expected to be the largest 
change in this aspect, which is in close correlation with the processes of 
suburbanisation and peri-urbanisation. 
2) On the basis of the historical overview of urban theories it can be stated 
that besides the categorisation of cities by the number of inhabitants, the 
awareness of the other social and economic factors of urban development 
and the complex evaluation of metropolitan functions are also necessary for 
understanding the development processes of cities. The scientific literature 
emphasised among economic factors the primary importance of company 
centres, global capital and commodity markets, global management func-
tions, advanced level business services high, the presence of international 
media organisations and the role of telecommunication and air traffic hubs. 
The overview of urban theories also highlighted that the economic proc-
esses determining global urban hierarchy have several social impacts, fac-
tors (increasing social inequalities, social polarisation social conflicts, the 
restructuring of employment structure) missing from the earlier theses of 
the overviewed theories. 
3)  The global territorial, social and economic processes influencing metropoli-
tan development are also present in the European metropolitan system, and 
they are expressing the new elements of the development of urban areas 
and of the spatial processes of metropolitan development in a differentiated 
intensity and way. 
4)  Differences in the social and economic development of cities in their link-
ages to urban networks, in the integration or shaping of global processes, 
local factors, the special historical and social backgrounds and differences 
originating from them also play an important role. 
5) The increasing population of metropolises, their changing functions and 
global networks change their internal relation scheme as well. The earlier 
hierarchical core-periphery modelled relation system is turning into or ex-
14
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
tended by an inter-settlement system based on horizontal co-operation and 
the functional division of labour. 
6) The transformation of the internal relation system of metropolitan settle-
ments also means that the earlier mono-directional, no feedback relations 
increasing the dependence from the centre are replaced by multi-
directional, networked relation schemes. The functional division of labour 
among settlements in metropolitan areas may increase the degree of the ter-
ritorial integration of settlements. 
7) The key factors correlating with the physical expansion and the changing 
territorial structure of urban areas and determining the development of the 
relation systems of urban areas and spatial disparities are as follows: the 
decentralisation of population and the economy, the integration of urban 
economies into the global economy, the spatial division of labour of firms, 
producer-supplier relations and labour migration as their outcome. 
Table 1 
The number of cities with over 500 thousand inhabitants grouped by city size 
and continents (1975, 2000, 2015) 
Urban size category 
Continents 1975 
2000 
2015 
(number of inhabitants) 
10 million and more 
Asia 

10 
12 
 
Latin-America and the Caribbean Region 



 North-America 



 Africa 
– 


 Europe 
– 


5–10 million 
Asia 

13 
23 
 Europe 



 
Latin-America and the Caribbean Region 



 North-America 



 Africa 



1–5 million 
Asia 
78 
171 
253 
 Europe 
42 
56 
54 
 
Latin-America and the Caribbean Region 
17 
42 
65 
 North-America 
28 
37 
43 
 Africa 

33 
59 
 Oceania 



500 thousand–1 million 
Asia 
112 
216 
269 
 Europe 
64 
69 
72 
 
Latin-America ad the Caribbean Region  
25 
53 
56 
 Africa 
19 
42 
67 
 North-America 
28 
39 
44 
 Oceania 

– 

Source: World Urbanization Prospects: The 2003 Revision, 89. 
  15 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Table 2 summarises the key factors of the relation systems of urban areas 
which are serving as a guideline for pointing out the directions of empirical re-
search. The factors summarised in the table can be categorised into three major 
groups. These are economic factors, social factors and other factors. 
Table 2 
Factors of agglomeration, the elements of relation systems in urban areas 
as specified by the cited scientific literature 
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 
Aguilera–Mignot 
(2003) 
         X    X      X    
Ascher 
(1998) 
X  X             
Barta 
(2002) 
        X 

X     
Beckouche 
et 
al 
(1997) 
     X      X 
X   
Barta-Beluszky 
(1999) 
X    X 
X  X      X  
Belliot 
(dir) 
(2006) 
       X X X  X  X      X 
Burdack 
(2005) 
X       X 
X       
Dany 
et 
al 
(1996) 
     X          
Enyedi 
(2000) 
        X       
Potentials 
for… 
(2005) 
     X          
Giban 
(2003) 
X X      X    X      X X  
Gilli 
(2003a) 
     X     X     
Hardi–Nárai 
(2005) 
X    X 
X       X   
Kőszegfalvi 
(1997) 



X            
Lengyel 
(2003) 
         X      
Les 
franges 
franciliennes 
(1997) X X      X  X    X    X  
Mirloup 
(2002) 
         X X  X    X X  X 
Mokos 
(2004) 
    X 
X          
Szirmai 
et 
al 
(2003a) 
X            X X X  X  X  
Urban 
sprawl… 
(2006) 


X     X        
Total 
9 4 3 1 4 12 2 5 8 3 4 3 5 4 2 
Legend: 1. Changes in population number, migrations, suburbanisation; 2. Housing, housing condi-
tions; 3. The development of basic settlement infrastructure; 4. The development of residential 
infrastructural supply; 5. Transport connections; 6. Labour migration; 7. Commuting (pace of 
residence–school); 8. The relations of economic organisations in general; 9. Site selection; 10. 
Supplier relations; 11. Relations between company centres – company sub-centres; 12. The con-
sumption of economic actors, the utilisation of services; 13. The relocation of different func-
tions, residential consumption; 14. Changes in social structure; 15. The relations of research in-
stitutes. 
Source: Author’s construction based on the cited scientific literature. 
16
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
In our study, the group of economic factors comprises such factors as the rela-
tions of economic organisations including the factors of site selection, supplier 
relations, and the relations between company centres and company sub-centres. 
The factors associated with the consumption and utilisation of services and the 
relocation of certain associated, relevant service functions into suburban areas 
may also belong to this category. 
Site selection and herein the immigration of Foreign Direct Investment into ur-
ban areas is an element of cardinal importance for the economy of all the three 
Hungarian cities; therefore, their research is by all means is necessary. Within 
this context – surveying company centre – company sub-centre locations as well 
as investigating the system of supplier contacts and the relation systems having 
been formulated as an impact of the consumption of economic actors would pro-
vide further interesting results. The simultaneous survey of the above-mentioned 
four factors would be suitable for identifying urban development factors that have 
been generated by the out-radiating impacts of the capital city and for clearing 
the roles of local settings. 

Changes in labour migration are an important factor of both economic and so-
cial relations, and it is also an integral part of the above-mentioned economic 
relations. The majority of scientific literature marks this factor as a key indicator 
of agglomeration processes and the development of urban area relations. Our pre-
liminary results suggest that this factor has a key role in the development of all 
three Hungarian cities investigated in the capital city region; therefore, its analy-
sis in the context of economic factors is by all means necessary.
 
Social factors is the second group to be analysed, encompassing such elements 
as changes in population number, suburbanisation, changes in housing and hous-
ing conditions, changes in social structure and changes in the structure of residen-
tial consumption. Each of these elements has a high representation among the fac-
tors analysed in scientific literature. Of all these factors, our study is concentrat-
ing on those strongly relevant to labour migration, i.e. changes in population 
number, migration processes, suburbanisation and the spatial structure of resi-
dential consumption.
 
Our third group is the group of the so-called other factors, encompassing the 
parameters of the development of transport and residential infrastructure as well 
as school-oriented commuting and the relations of research institutes. The investi-
gation of this latter component (although they are not closely connected to the 
subject of our research) due to their sector-specific features should be surveyed on 
urban area level but R&D sector on an even wider scale. 
The economic and social relation system of the two capital city regions (with 
their relevant economic and social impacts and outcomes can be revealed by a 
simultaneous analysis of the factors listed in 
Table 3. 
  17 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Table 3 
The elements of the relation systems investigated by our research 
Economic relations 
Site selection 
The geographical location of company-sub-centres 
Supplier relations 
Consumption of economic actors 
Labour migration 
Social relations 
Migration processes 
Residential consumption 
Source: Author’s construction. 
3  A brief introduction of the research sites 
3.1 Székesfehérvár 
Székesfehérvár is one of Hungary’s oldest settlements. Its favourable geographi-
cal location and central position can be verified by its short 56 km distance from 
Budapest and its lying in a 15 minutes’ access time from international and do-
mestic highways which is a significantly better value than the average access time 
(40 minutes [KSH]) (Figure 2). 
Székesfehérvár as the county seat of Fejér County before World War 2 was a 
traditionally developing historical settlement without any major industrial tradi-
tions. However, the late 1940s brought a quickly prospering economy for the city. 
It was in the 1960s when the city’s economy changed fundamentally. A giant 
industrial development programme was launched here by the state, resulting in 
convergence to the country’s other industrial centres. This was the period when 
the city’s fundamental industrial plants, such as Videoton (electronics industry), 
Ikarus and KÖFÉM (aluminium industry), were founded or expanded.  
As a result of this process, Székesfehérvár turned into an industrial city by the 
1970s and 80s, with all of the typical disadvantages of this situation: the city and 
its environment had to face the overwhelming dominance of large industrial 
plants and increasing regional development differences.  
The changes in the early 1990s – following the national trends – hit the local 
large industrial plants as well as turning Székesfehérvár into a crisis region be-
tween 1989 and 1993. The ratio of unemployment was at its maximum in the year 
1993 with a value of 30%.  
18
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Figure 2 
The geographical location of our research sample areas in Hungary 
 
Source: http://maps.google.com. 
By the mid 1990s, the city could successfully mobilise its economic develop-
ment potential (public lands with advanced infrastructure, enterprise-friendly 
regional and development policy, well-trained and experienced labour force, 
company references) and investment promotion policies (local business tax credit, 
governmental grants), which generated a large-scale inflow of Foreign Direct 
Investment, turning the city and its urban area into the third largest foreign invest-
ment zone of Hungary after Budapest and Győr. 
The transformation of the economy of Székesfehérvár, the restructuring of 
businesses primarily in the processing sector, their increasing weight in the local 
economy are primarily resulting from Foreign Direct Investment into the city to a 
value of 2.5 billion USD (until 2007).  
  19 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
The dominance of processing industry and herein of electronics and engineer-
ing industry has transformed the structure of production and employment, and 
generated a rapid development in production technology. The traditions of the 
earlier processing industry and settlement’s favourable geographic location (be-
yond the above-mentioned factors, I mean factors such as favourable transport 
geographical position, effective city and regional marketing, advanced telecom-
munication services) attracted several multinational firms applying world stan-
dard high technology (Szirmai et al. 2003b). 
3.2 Tatabánya 
Tatabánya is situated in the central part of Komárom-Esztergom County. The city 
is also within a 15 minute access zone from the international and domestic motor-
way system. The benefits of its favourable geographical location are further in-
creased by the proximity of international border stations (Slovakia), of Budapest, 
and of the capital cities of two neighbour countries (Bratislava and Vienna). The 
city’s distance from Budapest is 60 kilometres. 
The early industrialisation of the area, which was based on the abundance of 
mineral resources, started in the late 19th century by opening a series of coal 
mines (1896) which was followed by power station units (1898 and 1934) fuelled 
by local coal fields. With the discovery of local bauxite fields, the area’s heavy 
industrial character had been set by the middle of the 20th century. In Tatabánya 
this meant coal mining, fuel-cake production, energy and heat generation, cement 
production, building material industry, precision engineering, aluminium produc-
tion, and electronics industry. 
The concentration of industrial jobs increased the area’s socio-economic de-
velopment level. However, since the 1960s, due to the intensive industrial devel-
opment programme, an increasing degree of industrial and residential environ-
mental strain had occurred which turned into a source of social conflicts. 
The gradually expanding socio-economic development progress, whose pace 
was always changing in some periods, but was intensive all the time, continued 
until the mid–1980s. The short-term economic stagnation right after the cessation 
of the Eocene Programme13 was followed by a socio-economic transformation 
crisis and recession. Mining and its associated energy industry kept their positions 
until the late 1980s. Their downsizing and partial transformation had started and 
had been completed by the mid–1990s only as a result of rationalisations of the 
termination of expensive production processes and of the involvement of Foreign 
Direct Investment. 
                                                           
13 Eocene Programme: a programme in the 1980s targeted at the utilisation of the brown coal and 
karst bauxite underneath the Eocene layer in the Transdanubian Mountains. 
20
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
In Tatabánya, the economic crisis lasted until the mid–1990s. The city’s eco-
nomic restructuring could be implemented due to the investment promotional 
character of the local policy based on immigrating multinational firms and the 
involvement of their direct investments into the local economy. The number of 
foreign capital ventures in the region is approximately 400, and the total value of 
their registered capital is over 100 million euro of which 80% is concentrated in 
Tatabánya. The value of newly invested foreign direct capital, resulting in build-
ing new production plants, bringing in machinery, assembling production lines for 
example, was nearly 0.5 billion Euro in the city (until 2002). The manufacturing 
of vehicle parts, electronics and equipment – principally in chemical and envi-
ronmental industry – became the main profile of the economy. There are nearly 
40 enterprises operating in the city’s industrial estate, providing jobs for more 
than 6000 people. Meanwhile, the other key factors of development also under-
went a spectacular growth: social activity increased, and the city and its services 
significantly improved.  
3.3 Sens 
The city of Sens is located in Bourgogne region next to the central Île–de–France 
region. The city has a very favourable geographical location. Three motorways 
(A5, A6, A19) crossing the region have a key role in the city’s road connections. 
The city’s distance from Paris is 115 kilometres (Figure 3).  
The city’s major railway connections are encompassing the railway lines con-
necting the city with its wider area and Paris providing a quick access (Sens–Paris 
[55 minutes with more than 20 trains daily], Sens–Dijon [1 hour 45 minutes, 7 
trains daily] and Sens–Lyon [2 hours by TGV]).  
The city of Sens has very long historic traditions: it was already an important 
city in the Middle Ages. The city’s industrial development started in the second 
half of the 19th century mostly as a result of the construction of the Paris–Lyon–
Marseille railway line. However, the dynamic economic prosperity of city started 
only after World War 2. This was the period when small-scale industrial manu-
facturing and handicraft industries linked to textile and food industries were 
dominating the city’s and its urban area’s economy. The first major industrial 
plant (SEIMA – Saint Clément) was built in the region in 1965, followed by a 
quick immigration of several other firms (FMC, WELLA, BAYER – Sens). A 
significant ratio of mostly manufacturing firms which settled down here between 
1965 and 1973, came from the Paris region, and regarding its economic develop-
ment level, Sens region very soon closed up to the greater Paris region (Paris Ba-
sin). As it is seen, foreign capital ventures emerged in the city’s and its urban 
area’s economy at quite an early time. By the end of the 70s, as a result of eco-
  21 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
nomic modernisation, the immigrating firms concentrated on inter-firm coopera-
tion and on creating of supplier networks to increase their efficiency. At the end 
of the 80s, as a result of the settlement of further new firms, the following firms 
grew into the area’s biggest industrial employers: Senoble (food industry), Cibié 
(car industry), Filergie (cable manufacturing), Bayer-Pharma (pharmaceutical 
industry). In the 90s, the city’s economic development lost its balanced nature for 
a certain time, which was felt by the rise of the unemployment rate (1990 – 8,1%, 
1994 – 12%, 2004 – 9,8%, and these figures are matching with the national aver-
age), by the disequilibrium of labour demand and supply, and by the increasing 
out-migration of labour (chiefly to the capital city region (Plan d’occupation des 
sols…
, 1995). 
Figure 3 
The geographical location of the research sample areas in France 
 
Source: http://maps.google.com. 
22
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
In the early years of our decade, nearly 3000 commercial and processing in-
dustry firms were registered in the city of Sens and its urban area according to the 
data of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Sens (CCI de Sens). The area’s 
biggest employers are shown in the figure below (Figure 4).  
The city’s industry focuses on three major branches: electronics industry, food 
industry and mechanical engineering. Foreign Direct Investment has a larger role 
in the city’s economy now than in the earlier decades. Pirelli – cable manufactur-
ing (Italian), OTM – metal processing (American), Sonoco – packing (American), 
Plastikpack – packing (German), Möllertech – plastic industry (German), 
Chemetall – chemical industry (German), TEVA – pharmaceutical industry (Is-
raeli). 
Figure 4 
The distribution of major employers by different economic sectors 
 
Source: Auzet, L. (2002): Des liens avec l’Ile-de-France. In: 8 aires urbaines en Bourgogne – 
INSEE Bourgogne 2002. 
  23 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
4 The results of empirical research 
4.1 Economic relations 
4.1.1  Site selection – with special regard to the immigration of foreign capital 
ventures 
All of the cities of our research sample area in the capital city region are parts of a 
dynamic spatial network. When analysing the metropolitan area of Budapest, this 
is well illustrated by changes in the number of operating businesses within a cer-
tain period. It is primarily the capital city and its wider environment (including 
the urban areas of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya) where a dynamically prosper-
ing economic zone seems to shape out. This dynamism strongly correlates with 
the decentralisation process of the economy. 
Figure 5 
Changes in the number of operating businesses between 1996 and 2003 (%)* 
 
*National average = 1.39 
Source: Central Statistical Office. 
24
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Similar decentralisation processes can be observed in the metropolitan area of 
Paris. By taking a glance at the share of firms immigrating and out-migrating 
from Paris between 2000 and 2005, we can observe that the balance is negative in 
every year, the number of out-migrating firms always surpasses the number of 
immigrants (Table 4).  
Table 4 
The number of firms immigrating and out-migrating from Paris between 
2000 and 2005 
Year Immigrants 
Out-migrants 
Balance 
2000 3,246 
3,492 
–246 
2001 3,092 
3,823 
–731 
2002 2,958 
3,550 
–592 
2003 3,142 
3,563 
–421 
2004 3,142 
3,877 
–735 
2005 3,123 
4,487 
–1,364 
Total 18,703 
22,792 
–4,089 
Source: Localisations et délocalisations… 2006, 6. 
The relocation of enterprises’ site initiated by the dynamic growth of the econ-
omy and by the restructuring of the spatial structure of labour can considered an 
important factor of dynamic spatial development (Gilli, 2003a). The majority of 
enterprises are out-migrating from the Île-de-France region and their greatest 
share is relocating their site into its neighbour counties. 
Between 1996 and 2001, 1270 firms immigrated into Bourgogne region, in-
cluding Yonne County and the city of Sens; and 1030 firms out-migrated from 
there. More than 40% of the immigrating enterprises came from Îl-de-France re-
gion (Bonsacquet – Loones, 2005) (Figure 6). One-fourth of the firms out-mi-
grating from Îl-de-France region to Bourgogne settled down in the urban area of 
Sens (Hilal, 2006). 
Among the enterprises immigrating into our investigated regions foreign capi-
tal ventures are very important economic structure shaping and mobilising factors 
(Baráth, 2005b; Gilli, 2003a; Plet 1994; Szirmai et al. 2003a).  
The cities of our research have almost entirely built their crisis management 
strategies on the attraction of foreign capital ventures. Moreover, in the city of 
Sens, foreign capital ventures played a vital role in both the modernisation of the 
economy and in creating new jobs. Among the largest employees there are such 
firms as Valeo Vision (600 employees) and Cable Pirelli (850 employees).  
  25 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Figure 6 
The number of firms immigrating into Bourgogne region from, Île-de-France and 
Rhône–Alpes regions and the number of firms out-migrating to these regions 
(between 1996 and 2001) 
 
Source: Bonsacquet – Loones, 2005. 2. 
The interviews prepared in Sens made clear that several disadvantages may 
arise from the factors of site selection which may principally occur in the context 
of an economic dependence on the capital city. It is a common phenomenon that 
in the majority of cases, these businesses locate only their manufacturing plants in 
settlements lying on the periphery of the Budapest Agglomeration Zone, but fi-
nancial and commercial branches still remain in Budapest  
However, in the case of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, foreign capital ven-
tures are partially following a different strategy. In their case, it is also a usual 
26
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
practice that their manufacturing plants are located in Hungary and the proximity 
of Budapest plays a vital role in their site selection policy (because of their man-
agers’ residential place, consumption and the proximity of an international air-
port) (Szirmai et al. 2003b). But on the other hand, their local (Hungarian) head-
quarters or branches are built in these cities, namely in Székesfehérvár and 
Tatabánya as their economic relations and the consumption of firms are bound to 
our investigated cities to an increasing degree.  
Another common phenomenon in both countries is that due to Foreign Direct 
Investment in Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens alike, the role of services and 
logistic functions is increasing and there is a growing demand for skilled labour as 
well. Nevertheless, local development is slowed down by the out-migration of 
qualified professionals. The emergence of the global economy and decreasing 
unemployment reduces the autonomy of the local economy; therefore, the preser-
vation of autonomy may imply the loss of economic balance (Béhar – Estèbe 
1998, 114).  
The spatial structure of Foreign Direct Investment shows significant difference 
between our investigated Hungarian and French cities and their urban areas: in 
Hungarian urban areas, nearly all investments are targeted at the industrial estates, 
or in the case of brownfield, to industrial zones within the administrative 
boundaries of cities. In Sens region, a high ratio of big firms are settling down in 
the city’s urban area (neighbour settlements) (e.g. Valeo–Saint Clément, Cables 
Pirelli–Gron, Paron, Wella–Malay–le–Grand). The reasons go back to the prices 
of available land and real estate. It is remarkable that jobs created in the cities’ 
urban area significantly increase cooperation between the city and its neighbour 
settlements, and by now, the majority of these collaboration programmes in the 
urban area of Sens (communauté de commune) have been organised to operate in 
institutional framework. 
Another similarity between the research sites is that the global economy has 
an impact on the urban development chances of cities in an indirect way through 
the taxes of economic actors.
 Our studies revealed a significant ratio of business 
taxes in the local taxation revenues, and herein the high ratio of foreign capital 
ventures as taxpayers in all the three cities. The analysis of the municipal budget 
of our investigated cities shows that local business taxes paid by global economic 
actors contribute very highly to the local public funds of cities: in Sens, they 
amount up nearly to 50% of the total local tax revenues (Brion, 2002, 19), while 
in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, more than 70% of local tax revenues originates 
from business tax. Regarding the total sum of budgetary revenues, these taxes 
amount up to 20% and in Tatabánya to 10% of their total sum. Local taxes paid 
by global economic actors contribute very highly to the local development funds 
of cities.  
  27 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
4.1.2 Company centre – sub-centre relations 
Our analysis on company centre – sub-centre relations have revealed that all three 
investigated cities have a high ratio (and similar at about 30% each) enterprises 
with company headquarters in the capital city. In Hungarian cities, economic 
organisations are mostly engaged in the service sector whose tendency is also true 
for the city of Sens. 
There is a big difference among the three cities in the role of business services 
operating independently of the manufacturing plants located into them by these 
firms. Of the three cities, the role of advanced business services is highest in 
Székesfehérvár. The reason for this goes back to the special features of the three 
cities’ urban economies, as Székesfehérvár has the most advanced industrial 
technology employing skilled labour in adequate numbers. For this reason, the 
degree of embedment of global economic actors into urban economies, selecting 
Hungarian cities (preferably Székesfehérvár) as their site location, is higher than 
in France. 
Locating company headquarters into the peripheral cities of the urban area in-
stead of manufacturing plants only with all the advanced services relevant with 
their activities may reduce the economic dependency of urban areas on their core 
metropolis. The economic functions located into such cities may act as multipli-
cators by stimulating development in further sectors and by generating new labour 
demands in the urban area and in the region. 
4.1.3 The territorial structure of the consumption of economic actors 
Another of our research areas was exploring the spatial structure of the consump-
tion of economic actors Our investigations in this field revealed those services of 
which the utilisation is the most likely to be bound to Budapest, and which firms 
are utilising them. 
The results of the questionnaire survey conducted at the Hungarian enterprises 
in the spring of year 2007 are indicating that regarding the utilisation of services, 
they are principally bound to the hosting site of their headquarters (Figure 7). In 
Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, the ratio of warehouse, leasing, security, cleaning 
book-keeping, accounting and data processing services was in case of each com-
ponent as high as 75–80 percent. 
The analyses of the French research site are based on the data provided by the 
Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Yonne County. In the whole county, 
about one third of the total enterprises uses various services in the Paris region 
(Paris and its neighbourhood) and this value in the city of Sens and its urban area 
is presumably higher. Figure 8 shows where the services used by the enterprises 
of Yonne County are located geographically. As it can be noticed, an outstanding 
28
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
ratio of services is used in Paris and its metropolitan area14 (32%), which is by far 
higher than the ratio of services used in the neighbour counties of Yonne County. 
The data of the interviews made in Sens also suggest that the city’s relevant 
figures of service utilisation in Paris must be rather high as well. 
Thus, the comparison of the two research sites may be based on the service 
sectors used in the capital cities. Table 5 indicates that the enterprises of Yonne 
County (as well as firms in Sens) use financial services, R&D, IT and tele-
communication, human resource and marketing and communication in the largest 
share in Paris. These service groups represent an outstanding high rate not only 
among services used in Paris, but also among services used in other counties. 
Figure 7 
The consumption of economic actors in Hungarian cities* 
Advertisement, promotion
Consultancy services
Quality assurance
Product development
Education/professional training
Labour development
Security services, cleaning
Book-keeping, accounting, data processing
Financial, insurance services
Repair services
Warehouse, leasing
Commerce
Transportation–logistics
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
City
County
Region
Budapest
Budapest Agglomeration Zone
Other
 
A question asked by the questionnaire: Please indicate where your company typically uses the 
following services.  
Legend: City – Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya; County – Komárom-Esztergom, Fejér County; Region – 
Central Transdanubia. 
Source: Results of questionnaire survey conducted at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya. 
                                                           
14 As it is indicated by data it is the administrative unit marked by Figure 7 and Table 5. 
  29 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Figure 8 
The distribution of services used by the enterprises of Yonne County in other 
counties by county (%) 
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Paris
Seine-et-
Aube
Loiret
Côte-d’Or
Rhône
Other
Marne
 
Source: Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Yonne County (Summer 2007). 
Table 5 
The distribution of services used by the enterprises of Yonne County outside 
Yonne County by county and service sector (%) 
Service sector 
Paris 
Loiret Aube Rhône Côte- Seine-et- Other Total 
d’Or 
Marne 
Environmental 
7 4 2 1  1 20 15 50 
Financial 
28  4 12  2  6  3  18 73 
Real 
estate 
0 0 0 1  0  0  0 1 
IT and telecommuni-
23 2 5 2  4  1 14 51 
cation 
Logistics 
13 11 21  0  6  9  13 73 
Transportation-logistics 12  8 13  1  2  1  19 56 
Marketing and commu-
18 0 4 0  1  2  3 28 
nication 
R&D 
24 6 6 1  7  4 14 62 
Human 
resource 
19 2 4 2  6  1  5 39 
Travel, accommodation, 
2 1 0 0  1  0  0 4 
catering 
Total 
146 38 67 10  34  41 101 437 
Source: Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Yonne County (Summer 2007). 
30
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Our investigations have verified that just like domestic (both Hungarian and 
French) firms, immigrating foreign capital ventures prefer using local services, 
which indicates these cities’ high economic autonomy.  
In our case, the geographical structure of the service utilisation of foreign 
capital firms follows a simpler and less differentiated pattern. However, in some 
types of services (education, training, professional training, R&D, advanced busi-
ness services) the central role of the capital city still been preserved (Figure 9).  
There are also rather great differences in the firm utilisation ratio of different 
services both in Tatabánya and Székesfehérvár (Figure 10). The differences are 
the biggest in the utilisation ratio of product development, book-keeping, ac-
counting, data processing, financial, insurance and commercial services (regard-
ing each component, the utilisation ratio values of the firms in Székesfehérvár are 
higher, meaning a higher degree of demand–supply balance in Tatabánya). 
Figure 9 
The share of services used by foreign and Hungarian firms in Budapest (%) 
Transportation-logistics
40
Advertisement, promotion
Commerce
30
Consultancy services
Warehouse, leasing
20
10
Quality assurance
Repair services
0
Product development
Financial, insurance services
Book-keeping, accounting, data
Education, professional training
processing
Labour development
Security services, cleaning
Foreign
Hungarian
 
Source: Results  of questionnaire survey conducted at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya. 
  31 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Figure 10 
The share of services used in Budapest between the firms of Tatabánya 
and Székesfehérvár (%) 
Transportation-logistics
40
Advertisement, promotion
Commerce
30
Consultancy services
Warehouse, leasing
20
10
Quality assurance
Repair services
0
Product development
Financial, insurance services
Book-keeping, accounting, data
Education, professional training
processing
Labour development
Security services, cleaning
in Tatabánya
in Székesfehérvár
  
Source: Results of questionnaire survey conducted at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya. 
In case of Székesfehérvár, we had an opportunity to compare our present data 
on the utilisation of services with the results of an earlier research project (2002) 
which showed a greater integration of global economic actors into the local 
economy as well as the possibility of reducing economic dependence on eco-
nomically more advanced centres (in our case on the capital city). Our analyzed 
factors showed similar economic trends both in Tatabánya and Sens. 
4.1.4 Supplier relations 
The investigation and quantitative analysis of supplier relations could be carried 
out on Hungarian research sites.15 The supplier relations with economic 
organisations in Paris and in the Paris region were also emphasised in the 
interviews made in Sens in the years 2004–2005. 
                                                           
15 It is based on a questionnaire survey carried out at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya. 
32
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Supplier relations, both in case of Hungarian and foreign businesses, are in-
creasing the economic autonomy of our investigated cities, which is shown by the 
geographical distribution of the firms’ supplier activity. Supplier firms provide 
their supplier services for foreign and local (urban and urban area) firms; their 
orientation towards the central capital city has no outstanding significance (Fig-
ure 11
). 
However, firms having their own supplier networks are more strongly bound 
to Budapest. The evaluation of supplier relations is highlighting a rather 
controversial situation: on the one hand it may indicate a high degree of local 
economic autonomy, but on the other hand it may also show that these firms 
provide supplier services for less advanced (rather manufacturing) firms ‘being on 
the periphery’, which is limiting its chances to join the relation systems of urban 
areas.  
Figure 11 
The geographical dimensions of supplier activities 
City
30
25
20
Foreign country
County
15
10
5
0
Somewhere else in Hungary
Region
Budapest Agglomeration Zone
Budapest
To whom
From who
 
* Questions asked by the questionnaire: Where are those businesses typically located you are provid-
ing supplier services for? Where your suppliers are typically located? 
Source: Results of questionnaire survey conducted at enterprises in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya 
  33 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
4.1.5 Labour migration 
An important aspect of labour migration is that the investigated cities themselves 
also have a significant labour attraction force. Workers with low education from 
the neighbourhood of cities are employed mainly in industrial sectors. 
Our investigations have revealed that the majority of labour migrants coming 
from Budapest and from the cities in the greater urban area of our investigated 
cities have university degrees (being in managerial position or doing white-collar 
jobs)16, are employed in the service sector and this is a sign of the unbalanced 
state of labour demand and supply.  
The disequilibrium of labour demand and supply is further indicated by the pa-
rameters of labour migration to Budapest. The ratio of labour migrants to Buda-
pest and its metropolitan zone out of the working local population is 7% in 
Székesfehérvár and 10% in Tatabánya (Figures 12–13). From all the three cities 
the majority of labour migrants to the capital city and its metropolitan area are 
employed, predominantly in the service sector.  
Regarding educational background, there are large differences between the la-
bour migrants of the two cities. 61% of the daily commuters from Székesfehérvár 
to Budapest have university degrees. This value for the labour migrants from Ta-
tabánya is 33% (but here, the ratio of employees with secondary education is the 
highest: 57%) (Hungarian Central Statistical Office Census Data 2001). This 
value for the city of Sens is lower, about 20% similar to that of Tatabánya 
(INSEE Census Data 1999). From the differing values we can conclude for a 
higher degree of labour demand-supply in the cities of Tatabánya and Sens, which 
implies a lesser dependence from the labour demand of their capital cities. 
4.2 Social relations 
4.2.1 Migration processes 
Between 1990 and 2001 there was an increase in the metropolitan area of Buda-
pest
. The exceptions of this tendency were some territories of Komárom-
Esztergom and Nógrád counties and some medium-sized and large cities in the 
peripheral zones of the metropolitan region including the cities of Tatabánya and 
Székesfehérvár as well (Figure 14). 
Analysing the demographic indicators of the research period, we can notice 
that the increasing population number is clearly the result of the intensification of 
                                                           
16  66% of labour migrants from Budapest to Székesfehérvár and 65% of labour migrants from 
Budapest to Székesfehérvár have university degrees. 
34
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
suburbanisation processes as a natural decrease of population can be observed in 
the whole area. 
Migration surplus is the highest in the settlements located in the close 
neighbourhood of Budapest within the area of the Budapest Agglomeration Zone. 
Migration surplus areas are encompassing a territory up to the Tatabánya, Székes-
fehérvár, Dunaújváros, Kecskemét, Szolnok „border-line”, as well as the western 
area of Heves and the southern part of Nógrád counties, forming an almost 
entirely contiguous zone. 
Suburbanisation is a typical phenomenon even in the outskirts of the peripheral 
medium-size and large cities of the metropolitan region, so the urban areas of the 
above-mentioned cities also have a significant migration surplus.  
Figure 12 
The ratio of labour migrants out of the total employees living in same locality  
(2001) (%)* 
 
*National average = 0.59 
 
Source: Hungarian Central Statistical Office [KSH] census data (2001). 
  35 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Figure 13 
The ratio of economically active population working in the Paris region 
 
Source: Gilli, 2003b, 6, based on IGN INSEE 2000. 
36
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Figure 14 
Changes in the population number between 1990 and 2001 (%)* 
 
*National average = 0.99 
Source: Hungarian Central Statistical Office [KSH]. 
Out-migration from Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, the cities located in the 
proximity of motorways M1 and M7, has strongly accelerated. This shows that 
out-migration (change in population) closely correlates with the location of road 
networks (motorways, highways). 
The population of Yonne County as indicated by the 1999 census data was 
333,250, a figure which is higher by 10 thousand than it was in 1990. According 
to the statistical data and previous analyses (Gilli, 2003b; Les franges…, 2003; 
Maury, 2003; Brion, 1999) in the north part of the county (as well as in the city of 
Sens and its urban area) the increase of population is due to the proximity of the 
capital city (regarding the counties of Bourgogne region [Côte–d’Or, Nièvre, 
Saône–et–Loire, Yonne], Yonne County is the only place with a positive 
migration difference. In the 1990s, on an annual average 1300 more people 
immigrated here than migrated out of here). 
Table 6 shows changes in the population of Sens and its urban area. Besides 
the significant increase of population it is also noticeable that the majority of im-
  37 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
migrants do not move into the city centre to settle down there but they preferably 
select villages in the city’s neighbourhood. This tendency is also verified by the 
interviews made in Sens. 46% percent of the interviewed economic and municipal 
actors highlighted this impact of the capital city of France. 
Table 6 
Changes in the population of the city of Sens and its urban area between 
1990 and 1999 
 1990 
1999 
90/99 

1. 42,756 
43,926 
1,170 
2.7 
2. 27,082 
26,904 
–178 
–0.6 
3. 15,674 
17,022 
1,348 
8.6 
4. 97,161 
103,860 
6,699 
6.9 
Legend: 1. The city of Sens with its urban area. 2. Sens. 3. The urban area of Sens. 4. District of 
Sens. The analysis includes the 11 neighbour settlements of Sens in the category of urban area. 
The French public administration system defines district (arrondissement) as a part of county (dé-
partement). The District of Sens is located at the northern part of Yonne County, it is adjacent to 
Île-de-France region. 
Source: On the basis of NSEE RP 1999 „Présentation…” 2004. 
Table 6 makes it clear that the urban area’s population growth is significantly 
surpassing the city’s population decrease. This has resulted not from the out-mi-
gration of the city but rather from immigrations from outside the urban area. This 
migration surplus largely originates from the Île-de-France region (Hilal, 2006).  
Comparing the situation in the urban area of Sens with the processes ongoing 
in the urban area of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, it seems that in case of Hun-
garian urban areas, we can speak of a stagnation or very small increase of popula-
tion. It goes back to population decrease in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, which 
is more substantial than in the city of Sens (Table 7). 
The changes in the number of population due to the spatial restructuring of 
population may be interpreted as an effect of urban area formation i.e. the de-
creasing population of cities (the smallest population decrease was observed in 
Sens), and is counterbalanced by the increasing population of their urban areas 
(the increase in the number of population was much smaller in Hungarian cities 
and their urban areas).  
In the French sample areas, the immigrating population arrives principally 
from Paris and its metropolitan area, while the migration surplus of the Hungar-
ian urban areas is rather more due to local suburbanisation than immigration 
from external territories. 

38
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Table 7 
Changes in the population of our investigated cities and their urban area between 
1990 and 1999 
 1990 
1999/2001
90/99.01 

Sens with its urban area 
42,756 
43,926 
1,170 
2.7 
Sens 27,082 
26,904 
–178 
–0.6 
The urban area of Sens (11 settlements) 15,674 
17,022 
1,348 
8.6 
Székesfehérvár with its urban area 
138,690 
140,010 
1,320 
0.9 
Székesfehérvár 108,958 
106,346 
–2,612 
–2.4 
The urban area of Székesfehérvár (18 settle- 
29,732 33,664  3,932 
13 
ments, statistical micro-regions) 
Tatabánya with its urban area 90,001 
89,826 
–175 
–0.2 
Tatabánya 74,277 
72,470 
–1,807 
–2.5 
The urban area of Tatabánya (9 settlements) 15,724 
17,356 
1,632 
10.0 
Source: INSEE, KSH. 
Our results have shown that in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya as well as in 
their urban areas, the immigration of citizens from Budapest and its close 
neighbourhood can also be regarded as a typical phenomenon. 
There is a substantial difference between the reasons of population change and 
of the residential origin of immigrants into urban areas in the two country’s re-
search sample areas. The reason of this lies in the two capital city region’s differ-
ent phase in urban development. While in Budapest and its metropolitan area 
suburbanisation started in the early 1990s, such suburbanisation processes had 
already started in the metropolitan area of Paris in the 1960s. 
In both research sites, immigrants settling down from capital cities and their 
metropolitan areas by their age and motives of relocation can be arranged into two 
major social groups. The first one consists of people aged over 60 out-migrating 
from the city centre for spending their old-age pensioner period in peace and 
quiet. They are not going to live too far from the capital city, their social contacts 
and certain consumption habits are still linking them to the capital city. (This is 
well illustrated by the fact that the majority of theatre goers from Székesfehérvár 
to Budapest are aged over 60.) 
The other group of the out-migrants from capital cities consists of young, well-
trained families preserving their jobs in the capital city who are generally married 
with children. They also want to live at a quieter and cleaner place and can afford 
to buy a house and land only at a greater distance from the capital. 
Out-migrants from the capital cities to our investigated cities and their envi-
ronment (including well-trained labour) may be the potential labour force of the 
  39 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
cities they live in. A greater degree of balance between labour demand and sup-
ply, the interconnection of residential and working place functions would signifi-
cantly reduce the city’s dependency on the capital. Today, the increase of 
population does not automatically create new jobs as a great number of 
immigrants preserve their current job which increases central dependence. 
The separation of social classes (by age, education level, living habits) is a 
typical phenomenon in both of our Hungarian and French research sites. The tra-
ditional core-periphery relation between cities and their urban areas is in change 
now. High social classes are emerging in urban areas – the peripheries by this 
model – as well. The past socio-spatial inequalities are partially restructured and 
reproduced in this way. 
4.2.2 The spatial structure of residential consumption 
Labour and residential migrations have strong impacts on the spatial structure of 
residential consumption
 as well. 
The daily labouring out-migrants of our investigated cities (a part of them the 
new immigrants) do not use various services, such as public health services, 
education, training, cultural services at their place of residence. This is a remark-
able phenomenon because the consumer habits of daily out-migrants from cities 
who in the majority of cases are young, high-qualified workers have a low impact 
on the quality of local services, which on long-term may slow down or hinder the 
development and location of different services (e.g. advanced business services) 
into these locations. 
Our investigations have shown that in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya the man-
agers of foreign capital firms (including foreign and Hungarian managers) in the 
highest ratio (approximately 70%) live in cities or their close neighbourhood. The 
linkage to residential area has a strong impact on the involved social groups’ 
spatial structure of consumption, which means that the majority of services are 
utilised locally i.e. in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, increasing local demand and 
extending the palette of local services. 
Our analyses have also highlighted that irregardless of the processes of labour 
migration, in the field of some services (education–courses, higher education, 
cultural services–theatre, concert, cinema), the capital city targeted orientation of 
residential consumption may work against the expansion and quality improve-
ment of local services. What is much more important here is that it also brings 
about a functional division of urban areas. The service types associated with the 
central capital city (such as educational and cultural functions or advanced busi-
ness services) are separated to an increasing degree from those used in local or 
urban area context which by their further improvement (commercial and banking 
40
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
services, restaurants, amusement, health services) would further extend the central 
functions of our investigated cities. 
4.2.3 Cities and their inhabitants: integration, satisfaction, participation 
The third aspect of investigating social relations was analysing factors indicating 
the relationship of our investigated cities with their inhabitants.17 As a part of this 
task, our analysis of labour migration examined whether there is a difference be-
tween the opinion of local labourers and labour out-migrants on the city’s local 
development and their own residential environment. The analysis also investi-
gated the question whether the affected residential groups (local labourers and 
labour out-migrants) are somehow participating in the activities of local civil or-
ganisations. 
The local labourers’ higher personal involvement in local civil organisations 
shows their higher degree of local activity and social integration. 
There is also a great difference in residential satisfaction between local labour-
ers and labour out-migrants. Our results in Székesfehérvár show that labour out-
migrants are more satisfied with the built and natural environment, public 
sanitation, noise level and green areas of their residential area. This is partly be-
cause they are living in residential districts providing a top quality living envi-
ronment (mostly in villa suburbs or elite family house dwelling zones) and partly 
– as it is seen from the use of other services – they are less affected by these 
problems. Their manners of residential area utilisation are completely different 
from local labourers. 
Local labourers’ satisfaction seems to be higher with services rendered by dif-
ferent institutions, institutes of education, sports and entertainment facilities. 
Their higher satisfaction with building council flats should also be highlighted, 
which can also be explained by their higher involvement and possibly higher need 
for support. 
The factors of future local development perspectives (economic factors, the 
development of institutions, local policy, social factors and the elements of the 
quality of life) were also evaluated in a different way by the two analysed resi-
dential groups. In these matters labour out-migrants were also less concerned, 
which may weaken the long-term development opportunities of these settlements.  
However in Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens alike, urban development 
policies are targeted at the greater satisfaction of citizens. The major result of the 
last two decades in this field is the change of urban development trends. In 
Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, the development and urban policies set up in the 
                                                           
17 The results are based on interviews made in Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens as well as on the 
questionnaire database of NKFP research project cited in the ‘Methods’ chapter. 
  41 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
years following the change of regime can be divided into clearly distinct periods. 
Strictly defined crisis management, new job creation period concentrating on the 
urban economy only, has gradually turned into urban development objectives and 
policies comprising qualitative elements, e.g. public health, public security, 
development of public education, relieving the seriousness of environmental 
problems, the management of social problems, improving housing policy (Baráth, 
2005a). Our research results in Sens also emphasise the city’s development 
progress along the way as it has precisely been set up by strategic objectives and 
programmes (Baráth, 2005b). 
5  New scientific results 
Our empirical research – which followed the specified objectives of our research 
project – has investigated the relations of two metropolises situated in a different 
social and economic environment (Budapest and Paris) – as well as the impact 
forces mediated by the central city. The major findings of our study as solutions 
for our hypotheses can be summed up as follows (Figure 15).  
1. Our results of socio-economic factor analysis have verified the differences 
in the socio-economic development processes between Hungary and France in 
several aspects.
 
In the field of economic factors, the first major difference is between the inte-
gration of immigrated foreign capital firms into the local economic environment 
in
  Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens. According to our investigations in 
Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, their embeddedness into the local urban economy 
is higher, which is noticeable by the location of the non-manufacturing plant re-
lated company centres (e.g. financial centres) in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya 
,and by the spatial structure of the consumption of firms. In the city of Sens, the 
first international firms had already emerged in the 1970s, while in Székesfe-
hérvár and Tatabánya, only in the first half of the decade following the change of 
regime: there is therefore a great difference in the speed of the integration process 
of foreign capital firms into the local economy of these two cities. 
Our results indicate that it is not the type of urban settlement (traditional city, 
new city) but rather urban development strategies applied in the context of their 
own urban areas that are the primary differentiating factors of the central capital 
cities’ impacts on local urban development. 
Székesfehérvár and Sens, the cities 
following the traditional way of urban development, and Tatabánya, categorised 
as new city by the nomenclature of Hungarian urban typology all alike accom-
plished economic restructuring mostly on the basis of Foreign Direct Investment, 
which also demonstrates the role of global impacts on urban development. 
42
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
Figure 15 
New results 
 
Source: Author’s construction. 
The  major differences between research sites are arising from the historical 
differences between their economic and social background. 
The analysis of economic forces revealed that the restructuring impacts of 
global economic processes are stronger in Hungary than in France. This is due to 
the delayed emergence and development of the market economy starting from the 
early 1990s only, while in France, it could look back to a long history. 
The spatial structure of Foreign Direct Investment is another difference be-
tween the two research areas. In Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, nearly all invest-
ments are targeted at industrial estates or industrial zones within the 
administrative boundaries of cities. In Sens region, due to differences in available 
land and real estate, different prices and a different historical and social 
background, a high ratio of foreign investment is targeted at the city’s urban area 
(neighbour settlements). The new jobs created in this way in the city’s urban area 
significantly increase cooperation between the city of Sens and its neighbour 
settlements
 and a greater part of these collaboration programmes have been or-
ganised to operate in an institutional framework than in the urban areas of 
Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya. 
The geographical origin of residents immigrating into the urban areas of 
Székesfehérvár, Tatabánya and Sens was a key component of difference in the 
analysed social factors. The majority of citizens immigrating into the urban area 
of Sens arrive from Paris and the Paris region, but the migration surplus of the 
  43 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
urban areas of Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya is mostly the outcome of local 
suburbanisation processes. The reason of this lies in the two capital city region’s 
differing historical periods in the process of global spatial organisation.  
Our results show that the increase of residential functions does not automati-
cally create new jobs as a great number of immigrants preserve their current job – 
the majority of Sens immigrants in the central capital city, and the majority of 
Hungarian immigrant citizens in Székesfehérvár and Tatabánya, which in case of 
Sens and its urban area increases the intensity of their relations with the central 
capital city. 
2. The new elements of spatial relation system expanding the traditional core-
periphery model with horizontal co-operation can be identified on both research 
sites.
 The horizontal relations inside companies and between companies (such as 
supplier relations) should by all means be highlighted as their analysis clearly 
demonstrated the spatial economic integration of enterprises involved into our 
research. The analysis of the spatial relation system based on the consumption of 
companies, the utilisation of services and labour migration provided similar 
results. Our study has also revealed that the spatial structure of residential con-
sumption is strongly correlated with labour migration and this interaction is fur-
ther enhanced by the fact that the utilisation of certain services (education-
courses, higher education and cultural services) is also bound to Budapest in the 
historical perspective. 
Thus, these relation systems are characterised by both the stabilisation of hier-
archical relations and by the emergence of horizontal relations. Horizontal rela-
tion schemes are formulated only in case they yield greater advantages for stake-
holders. For economic actors, these advantages materialise in higher profits, better 
market prospects, clustering, improving thematic networks or increasing chances 
of participating in tenders. For individuals, advantages will be tangible in easier 
access to services, simpler administration of affairs, the maintenance of linkages 
to local services, and the preservation of local identity. Nevertheless certain 
activities (advanced business services, certain cultural services, some educational 
activities) require a critical mass that still maintains their hierarchical character. 
3. In the sample areas, the metropolitan areas’ relation system – the 
emergence of sub-centre functions – serving as a ground for horizontal relations 
and the functional division of labour – can also be identified.
 They depend on 
three factors. The first is the local existence of services utilised by economic 
actors, the second is the territorial structure of residential consumption and the 
third is the place’s labour attraction force. 
The urban sub-centre functions are dominant in company services demanding 
less trained (but a large number of) labour force, in economic services of local 
importance (business promotion, consultancy, promotion of local cooperation, 
44
 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
business administration services) and in social services (commerce, sport, profes-
sional training, social care). The awareness of all these factors is a great step to-
wards the formulation of future urban development strategies. 
4. Changes in the social and economic relations of the traditional core-
periphery model will also reconfigure the system of inequalities. 
Of the economic factors, our research results concerning company relation 
systems and the spatial structure of the consumption of economic actors indicate a 
spatial equalisation process. This is resulting from the increasing integration of 
economic actors into urban economic systems. 
However, labour migration and the balance of labour demand and supply are 
still dependant on the metropolitan centre. 
Of the investigated socio-spatial factors, migrations are clear indicators of the 
transforming metropolitan core-periphery model. These changes are signalled by 
the emergence of high social classes outside of the urban centre, by residential 
segregation and the growth of social polarisation. 
5. In the context of inequalities, the development of economic relation systems 
is progressing towards networks, regional processes, individual roles, all in one 
towards the elements of autonomous economic development. The social impacts 
and outcomes
  of the above-described processes  are increasing the number of 
elements subordinated to the metropolitan centre. 

6. New spatial relations arising from growth into a metropolitan area scaled 
size are organised on functional rather than administrative basis. This statement 
is verified by migration processes, the labour attraction force of metropolitan 
centres, by the decentralisation of economy, and by the urban area level func-
tional relations of economic actors. Each of these factors is independent from 
administrative borders (county, capital city agglomeration, settlement group). The 
formation of spatial relations is motivated mostly by thrift and accessibility rea-
sons. 
7. Our investigations have also verified that the spatial configuration and urban 
development impacts of capital cities are not primarily dependant on the 
population number based size of the selected cities. In spite of the differing city 
size and of the resulting different functions performed in their urban area network 
the impacts of the capital city on the urban development factors of Székesfehérvár 
and Tatabánya are very similar in several aspects (Foreign Direct Investment, its 
role in economic restructuring, the spatial structure of the consumption of 
economic actors, labour migration, the spatial structure of residential consump-
tion). This result suggests that our statements may be true not only for the selected 
cities, but can also be relevant on a general level. 
  45 
 

Baráth, Gabriella : The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas. 
Pécs : Centre for Regional Studies, 2009. 48. p. 
Discussion Papers, No. 75. 
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Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
The Discussion Papers series of the Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian 
Academy of Sciences was launched in 1986 to publish summaries of research findings on 
regional and urban development. 
The series has 5 or 6 issues a year. It will be of interest to geographers, economists, so-
ciologists, experts of law and political sciences, historians and everybody else who is, in 
one way or another, engaged in the research of spatial aspects of socio-economic develop-
ment and planning. 
The series is published by the Centre for Regional Studies. 
Individual copies are available on request at the Centre. 
 
 
 
Postal address 
Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences 
P.O. Box 199, 7601 PÉCS, HUNGARY 
 
Phone: (36–72) 523 800 
 
Fax: (36–72) 523 803 
www.rkk.hu 
http://www.dti.rkk.hu/kiadv/discussion.html 
 
 
 
Director 
Gyula HORVÁTH 
 
 
 
Editor 
Gábor LUX 
lux@rkk.hu 
 
  49 
 

Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
Papers published in the Discussion Papers series 
 
Discussion Papers / Specials 

BENKŐNÉ LODNER, Dorottya (ed.) (1988): Environmental Control and Policy: Proceedings of 
the Hungarian–Polish Seminar in the Theoretical Problems of Environmental Control 
and Policy 
OROSZ, Éva (ed.) (1988): Spatial Organisation and Regional Development Papers of the 6th Polish–
Hungarian geographical Seminar 
DURÓ, Annamária (ed.) (1993): Spatial Research and the Social–Political Changes: Papers of the 
7th Polish–Hungarian Seminar 
DURÓ, Annamária (ed.) (1999): Spatial Research in Support of the European Integration. 
Proceedings of the 11th Polish–Hungarian Geographical Seminar (Mátraháza, Hungary 
17–22 September, 1998) 
GÁL, Zoltán (ed.) (2001): Role of the Regions in the Enlarging European Union 
HORVÁTH, Gyula (ed.) (2002): Regional Challenges of the Transition in Bulgaria and Hungary 
KOVÁCS, András Donát (ed.) (2004): New Aspects of Regional Transformation and the Urban-
Rural Relationship 
BARANYI, Béla (ed.) (2005):  Hungarian–Romanian and Hungarian–Ukrainian border regions as 
areas of co-operation along the external borders of Europe 
ENYEDI, György – KOVÁCS, Zoltán (eds.) (2006): Social Changes and Social Sustainability in 
Historical Urban Centres. The Case of Central Europe 
KOVÁCS, András Donát (ed.) (2007): Regionality and/or locality 
SZIRMAI, Viktória (ed.) (2007): Social Inequalities in Urban Areas and Globalization. The Case of 
Central Europe 
ILLÉS, Iván (2008): Visions and Strategies in the Carpathian Area (VASICA) 
GÁL, Zoltán – RÁCZ, Szilárd (eds.) (2008): Socio-Economic Analysis of the Carpathian Area 
Discussion Papers 
No. 1 
OROSZ, Éva (1986): Critical Issues in the Development of Hungarian Public Health with 
Special Regard to Spatial Differences 
No. 2 
ENYEDI, György – ZENTAI, Viola (1986): Environmental Policy in Hungary 
No. 3 
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1987): Administrative Division and Administrative Geography in 
Hungary 
No. 4 
SIKOS T., Tamás (1987): Investigations of Social Infrastructure in Rural Settlements of 
Borsod County 
No. 5 
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1987): Development of the Regional Management of the Economy in 
East-Central Europe 
No. 6 
PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona (1988): Chance of Local Independence in Hungary 
No. 7 
FARAGÓ, László – HRUBI, László (1988): Development Possibilities of Backward 
Areas in Hungary 
No. 8 
SZÖRÉNYINÉ KUKORELLI, Irén (1990): Role of the Accessibility in Development and 
Functioning of Settlements 
50
 
 

Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
No. 9 
ENYEDI, György (1990): New Basis for Regional and Urban Policies in East-Central 
Europe 
No. 10 
RECHNITZER, János (1990): Regional Spread of Computer Technology in Hungary  
No. 11 
SIKOS T., Tamás (1992): Types of Social Infrastructure in Hungary (to be not published) 
No. 12 
HORVÁTH, Gyula – HRUBI, László (1992): Restructuring and Regional Policy in 
Hungary 
No. 13 
ERDŐSI, Ferenc (1992): Transportation Effects on Spatial Structure of Hungary 
No. 14 
PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona (1992): The Basic Political and Structural Problems in the 
Workings of Local Governments in Hungary 
No. 15 
PFEIL, Edit (1992): Local Governments and System Change. The Case of a Regional 
Centre 
No. 16 
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1992): Culture and Urban Development (The Case of  Pécs) 
No. 17 
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1993): Settlement Network Development Policy in Hungary in the 
Period of State Socialism (1949–1985) 
No. 18 
KOVÁCS, Teréz (1993): Borderland Situation as It Is Seen by a Sociologist 
No. 19 
HRUBI, L. – KRAFTNÉ SOMOGYI, Gabriella (eds.) (1994): Small and medium-sized 
firms and the role of private industry in Hungary 
No. 20 
BENKŐNÉ Lodner, Dorottya (1995): The Legal-Administrative Questions of 
Environmental Protection in the Republic of Hungary 
No. 21   ENYEDI, György (1998): Transformation in Central European Postsocialist Cities 
No. 22   HAJDÚ, Zoltán (1998): Changes in the Politico-Geographical Position of Hungary in the 
20th Century 
No. 23 
HORVÁTH, Gyula (1998): Regional and Cohesion Policy in Hungary 
No. 24 
BUDAY-SÁNTHA, Attila (1998): Sustainable Agricultural Development in the Region 
of the Lake Balaton 
No. 25 
LADOS, Mihály (1998): Future Perspective for Local Government Finance in Hungary 
No. 26 
NAGY, Erika (1999): Fall and Revival of City Centre Retailing: Planning an Urban 
Function in Leicester, Britain 
No. 27 
BELUSZKY, Pál (1999): The Hungarian Urban Network at the End of the Second 
Millennium 
No. 28 
RÁCZ, Lajos (1999): Climate History of Hungary Since the 16th Century: Past, Present 
and Future 
No. 29 
RAVE, Simone (1999): Regional Development in Hungary and Its Preparation for the 
Structural Funds  
No. 30 
BARTA, Györgyi (1999): Industrial Restructuring in the Budapest Agglomeration 
No. 31 
BARANYI, Béla–BALCSÓK, István–DANCS, László–MEZŐ, Barna (1999): 
Borderland Situation and Peripherality in the North-Eastern Part of the Great Hungarian 
Plain 
No. 32 
RECHNITZER, János (2000): The Features of the Transition of Hungary’s Regional 
System 
No. 33 
MURÁNYI, István–PÉTER, Judit–SZARVÁK, Tibor–SZOBOSZLAI, Zsolt (2000): 
Civil Organisations and Regional Identity in the South Hungarian Great Plain 
No. 34 
KOVÁCS, Teréz (2001): Rural Development in Hungary 
No. 35 
PÁLNÉ, Kovács Ilona (2001): Regional Development and Governance in Hungary 
  51 
 

Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
No. 36 
NAGY, Imre (2001): Cross-Border Co-operation in the Border Region of the Southern 
Great Plain of Hungary 
No. 37 
BELUSZKY, Pál (2002): The Spatial Differences of Modernisation in Hungary at the 
Beginning of the 20th Century 
No. 38 
BARANYI, Béla (2002): Before Schengen – Ready for Schengen. Euroregional 
Organisations and New Interregional Formations at the Eastern Borders of Hungary 
No. 39 
KERESZTÉLY, Krisztina (2002): The Role of the State in the Urban Development of 
Budapest 
No. 40 
HORVÁTH, Gyula (2002): Report on the Research Results of the Centre for Regional  
Studies of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences 
No. 41 
SZIRMAI, Viktoria – A. GERGELY, András – BARÁTH, Gabriella–MOLNÁR, Balázs 
– SZÉPVÖLGYI, Ákos (2003): The City and its Environment: Competition and/or Co-
operation? (A Hungarian Case Study) 
No. 42 
CSATÁRI, Bálint–KANALAS, Imre–NAGY, Gábor –SZARVÁK, Tibor (2004): Regions 
in Information Society – a Hungarian Case-Study 
No. 43 
FARAGÓ, László (2004): The General Theory of Public (Spatial) Planning (The Social 
Technique for Creating the Future) 
No. 44 
HAJDÚ, Zoltán (2004): Carpathian Basin and the Development of the Hungarian 
Landscape Theory Until 1948 
No. 45 
GÁL, Zoltán (2004): Spatial Development and the Expanding European Integration of the 
Hungarian Banking System 
No. 46 
BELUSZKY, Pál – GYŐRI, Róbert (2005): The Hungarian Urban Network in the 
Beginning of the 20th Century 
No. 47 
G. FEKETE, Éva (2005): Long-term Unemployment and Its Alleviation in Rural Areas 
No. 48 
SOMLYÓDYNÉ PFEIL, Edit (2006): Changes in The Organisational Framework of 
Cooperation Within Urban Areas in Hungary 
No. 49 
MEZEI, István (2006): Chances of Hungarian–Slovak Cross-Border Relations 
No. 50  RECHNITZER, János – SMAHÓ, Melinda (2006): Regional Characteristics of Human 
Resources in Hungary During the Transition 
No. 51 
BARTA, Györgyi – BELUSZKY, Pál – CZIRFUSZ, Márton – GYŐRI, Róbert – 
KUKELY, György (2006): Rehabilitating the Brownfield Zones of Budapest 
No. 52 
GROSZ, András (2006): Clusterisation Processes in the Hungarian Automotive Industry 
No. 53 
FEKETE, G. Éva – HARGITAI, Judit – JÁSZ, Krisztina – SZARVÁK, Tibor – 
SZOBOSZLAI, Zsolt (2006): Idealistic Vision or Reality? Life-long learning among 
Romany ethnic groups 
No. 54 
BARTA, Györgyi (ed.) (2006): Hungary – the New Border of the European Union 
No. 55 
GÁL, Zoltán (2006): Banking Functions of the Hungarian Urban Network in the Early 
20th Century. 
No. 56 
SZÖRÉNYINÉ, Kukorelli Irén (2006): Relation Analysis in Rural Space – A Research 
Method for Exploring the Spatial Structure in Hungary 
No. 57 
MAUREL, Marie-Claude – PÓLA, Péter (2007): Local System and Spatial Change – The 
Case of Bóly in South Transdanubia 
No. 58 
SZIRMAI, Viktória (2007): The Social Characteristics of Hungarian Historic City Centres 
No. 59 
ERDŐSI, Ferenc – GÁL, Zoltán – GIPP, Christoph – VARJÚ, Viktor (2007): Path 
Dependency or Route Flexibility in Demand Responsive Transport? The Case Study of 
TWIST project 
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Discussion Papers 2009. No. 75. 
The Relation Systems of Metropolitan Areas
No. 60 
PÓLA, Péter (2007): The Economic Chambers and the Enforcement of  Local Economic 
Interests 
No. 61 
BUDAY-SÁNTHA, Attila (2007): Development Issues of the Balaton Region 
No. 62 
LUX, Gábor (2008): Industrial Development, Public Policy and Spatial Differentiation in 
Central Europe: Continuities and Change 
No. 63 
MEZEI, Cecília (2008): The Role of Hungarian Local Governments in Local Economic 
Development 
No. 64 
NAGY, Gábor (2008): The State of the Info-communication Markets in Dél-Alföld 
Region – Hungary 
No. 65 
HORVÁTH, Gyula (2008): Regional Transformation in Russia 
No. 66 
BELUSZKY, Pál – SIKOS T., Tamás (2008): Changing Village-Typology of  Rural 
Settlements in Hungary at the Beginning of the Third Millennium 
No. 67 
CSIZMADIA, Zoltán – GROSZ, András (2008): Regional Innovation System in West 
Transdanubia 
No. 68 
HARDI, Tamás (ed.) (2008): Transborder Movements and Relations in the Slovakian–
Hungarian Border Regions 
No. 69 
ERDŐSI, Ferenc (2008): Global and Regional Roles of the Russian Transport 
Infrastructures 
No. 70 
CSIZMADIA, Zoltán (2009): Cooperation and Innovativity: the Network Foundations of 
the Regional System of Innovation 
No. 71 
HAJDÚ, Zoltán – LUX, Gábor – PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona – SOMLYÓDYNÉ PFEIL, 
Edit (2009): Local Dimensions of a Wider European Neighbourhood: Crossborder 
Relations and Civil Society in the Hungarian–Ukrainian Border Arean 
No. 72 
HORVÁTH, Gyula (2009): Cohesion Deficiencies in Eastern and Central Europe – 
Inequalities of Regional Research Area 
No. 73 
PÁLNÉ KOVÁCS, Ilona –VARJÚ, Viktor (eds.) (2009): Governance for Sustainability – 
Two Case Studies from Hungary 
No. 74 
SZÉPVÖLGYI, Ákos (2009): The Effects of the Information Society on Spatial 
Development – Hungarian Case Study 
 
  53