Discussion Papers 2001.
Role of the Regions in the Enlarging European Union 182-193. p.
Role of the Regions in the Enlarging European Union
0 Edited by Zoltcin Gal, Pecs, Centre for Regional Studies, 2001
FROM A FICTION TO THE
IMPLEMENTATION: REGIONAL
TRANSPORT
Ferenc Erd6si
In connection with the EU accession of Hungary special attention was devoted
to transportation, a sector, which besides environment protection requires the
most derogation. The sectoral ministry is mainly concerned about the improve-
ment of transport in technical—technological terms (modernisation and de-
creasing the average of the motor vehicle stock and matching its emission with
the EU norms and increasing the capacity of roads). Therefore the ministry is
unable to pay adequate attention to the regionalisation of transport, i.e. to re-
gional transportation. The National Transport Network Development Concept
mentions the regional dimension only incidentally in terms of the preference of
mass transport in the backward regions, but transportation received in the Na-
tion Development Plan much less space than its real importance and even this
was focused on the sub-sectors. Yet, the matter is not only the arrangement of
activities of the productive and servicing sectors within regional frameworks,
but also the establishment of a regional transport network able to intermediate
interactions and manage the migration of persons and goods in a new territorial
context, which is unavoidable.
Criteria of regional transport
Prior to the definition of regional transport and its functions, we are eager to
clarify, that the transport of a region is identical with regional transport, it only
means the portion of the varying territorial transport systems of the country
(main road network, system of accessory roads, local, etc.), falling on the given
region. At the same time, the transport concept, development plan and pro-
gramme of a region should not exclusively elaborate the regional transport but
all territorial and sub-sectoral elements of transport within the region.

Erdősi, Ferenc: From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport. In: Role of the Regions
in the Enlarging European Union. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2001. 182–193. p.
Discussion Papers. Special
From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport
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The essence of regional transport is determined on basis of the economy of
scale of the territory by two strictly connected factors — the scale and the func-
tion. Therefore, even based on the economy of scale regional transport is the a
medium tier, since it is equipped with threshold values, which are beyond the
capacity of the counties in terms of the establishment and efficient maintenance
of a transport infrastructure of given kind and technical capacity.
Within the historically developed space hierarchical system of transport
networks and services, regional transport is in several non-federal states (such
as Hungary) due to lack of traditions an absent category. Up to a certain extent
this lack is connected with the territorial arrangement of state administration
(i.e. the breakdown of the country by administrative units) and the level of cen-
tralism. The administrative tiers shaped the spatial structure of Hungary's mod-
ern age transport network besides the Austrian imperial will, basically already
during the establishment of the railway network (as the basic sub-sector influ-
encing the structure of sub-sectors) alongside the unique interests connected
with them:
—The national interests pushed the establishment of the main line network
converging in the capital city
—The thousand year old institutions of territorial administration with rights
"engraved into stone tablet"; tried — according to their interests — to con-
centrate the network to the county seats but at the same time they reacted
enviously to the attempts of the neighbouring counties which attempted
through the construction of railways, roads and ports to detach the neigh-
bouring peripheries.
As a result the transport network of the country (in some sense following the
model of Christaller) has basically a twofold mono-centric structure. The mod-
erate influence of the local forces was sufficient for only partial track modifi-
cation of mainly accessory lines and micro-regional and local road systems.
Some larger towns within the territory of historical Hungary had already at
the turn of the century such economic, servicing and cultural importance, which
went beyond the county frameworks and therefore the gravitation of these
counties covers in terms of certain roles larger territories, than their county.
The chambers of industry and commerce articulated the interests of these
"quasi-regions", having decades long a sphere of operation covering more than
one county. They tried to go beyond individual interests of the counties and to
formulate the common interests of larger territorial units, and even to represent
these in the course of the complicated process of the arrangement of the trans-
port networks which was accompanies by several conflicts of interests. Theo-
retically, all territorial chambers had the opportunity of interest representation,
yet not all of them became the combative representative of macro-regional

Erdősi, Ferenc: From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport. In: Role of the Regions
in the Enlarging European Union. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2001. 182–193. p.
Discussion Papers. Special
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F. Erthisi
(which means territorial) interests. However, the town of Debrecen grew into a
centre of a wide range of action, seeking the hegemony over the north—east
territory of the county, which in competition with the nearby Nagyvarad (Or-
adea), tried to influence the direction of accessory railroad tracks, which actu-
ally concerning several counties of course according to its own interests.
According to its scale regional transport is a new hierarchic category be-
tween the national and county transport, which:
— is inferior to the national level
— and superior to the county tier.
The basic target of regional transport is to satisfy transport demands deriv-
ing from the special scale of functional (economic/ administrative) regions
(which are accordingly larger than the county scale):
— First of all through the strengthening of the internal regional cohesion
between the areas as well as between the centres and sub-centres of the
given region;
— Considering the interests of the entire region through strengthening of
economic and environmental relationships to insure the transit traffic in
such way, that its advantages surpass the negative impacts;
— Third, regional transport must serve the improvement of relationships
with the neighbouring — and for some extent with distant and foreign —
regions. The importance of this aspect is always more emphasised by the
globalisation. Figure 1. describes linkages of intra- and inter-regional
transport.
From the aspect of the inhabitants, economic, social and other actors —
among others the organising—managing apparatus — of the "real" region, the
most important requirement against the future regional transport is to provide
for better conditions for the intra-regional, inter—county and inter county seat
transportation of people and goods. Further, it may contribute to the develop-
ment of the productive co-operation within the region and encourage the use of
professional specialised services mainly located and provided for in the re-
gional seats. But it is important also for the improvement of the mobility de-
riving from administrative work, the functioning of production within units that
are above threshold of efficient and economical functioning, and the cluster
building increasing efficiency.
In the current phase of development, as in the interest of the country's con-
solidation the privileged aspects are the encouragement of the foreign capital
input and the orientation towards foreign markets, the economic actors of the
regions obviously prioritise the external linkages rather than the intra-regional
transport. Following the economic consolidation of the country the completing

Erdősi, Ferenc: From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport. In: Role of the Regions
in the Enlarging European Union. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2001. 182–193. p.
Discussion Papers. Special
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F. Erdeisi
ture. Although the application of 'just in time' logistic model with its 'from
manufacturer to home' delivery systems does not require hubs but 'hub and
spoke' systems, generating a greater volume of goods traffic, cannot exist with-
out them. In hierarchical systems, on the basis of internal communication inter-
actions, through the performance of superior functions, regions may be re-
garded as major agglomeration areas served by their centres. (These central
locations with their magnitudes are called 'superior centres' in Christaller' s
urban network model still used in West European and German but abolished in
the Hungarian regional science terminology.)
The major requirements from a regional centre are as follows:
— It should be an ideal organisational centre of economic activities under-
going through modernisation, globalisation and networking (primarily
performed by multinational and other firms that deal with manufacturing,
commerce, services etc.)
— It should be the most appropriate site for exclusive services to be rendered
for a small number of customers
It should be the most important centre of transport/telecommunication and
logistics
— The location of a regional centre in the proximity of institutes of higher
education and research through the increased efficiency of brainwork may
create such chances for synergic advantages that regions — even in the age
of Internet — should never miss.
Another essential issue from the point of transportation networks is the con-
sideration, whether institutions serving for the wider interests of a region (or
sometimes even of a larger area than a region) should be concentrated in the
regional centre only, or should be divided among the cities of region. Practice
generally follows the single-centre model especially in regions having been
historical i.e. provincial administrative centres for several centuries with large
cities regarded as traditional 'capitals' of the region. The division of functions
may support a multi-centre model, in which simultaneously with the traditional,
cultural city situated in peripheral position within the region, separate eco-
nomic/commercial 'modern' centres operate on a more favourable transport
geographic location, having a larger influence on regional economic activities.
What relationship should intraregional transport have with regional cen-
tre(s)?
— Within the single-centre regional model the most important routes of re-
gional (thus intraregional) transport — connecting different areas (coun-
ties) within a region — generally go through regional centres and the ori-
entation for central places has priority in development processes.

Erdősi, Ferenc: From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport. In: Role of the Regions
in the Enlarging European Union. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2001. 182–193. p.
Discussion Papers. Special
From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport
187
— Regions with two regional centres  may face the dilemma whether the
transport routes heading towards traditional (cultural) centres should be
developed or those leading to the emerging economic centres should be
favoured in development processes. The relocation of transport centre
generally will terminate the dualistic feature of regional development and
the regional development forces of communication will turn the region
into a monocentric spatial formation.
The major elements of monocentric intraregional transport are as follows:
—The intraregional sections of national/international mainline routes (major
railway lines, motorways, main roads)
—Secondary railway lines, major railway sideways (or railway line chains),
secondary roads serving exclusively for monocentric regional transport
—Regional level services based on previously mentioned linear infrastruc-
tures (transregional accelerated trains connecting different areas, 'red
letter' fast coach services connecting county seats mainly.
Transversal communication connecting microregions situated outside the
magnitude of regional centres and urban agglomerations is also an important
component of the regional transport system even if it is used only to connect
two parts within the region.
The intraregional sections of national/international  transit routes  are also
parts of regional transport. Their best routing should not necessarily coincide
with the main direction and traffic flow pattern of intraregional communication.
Naturally, some parts of transit traffic (with the goods transported) may be
`kept within' and switched into the 'blood circulation' of the regional economy
but the chances for this are usually very small.
The elements serving for the establishment of transportation linkages with
other regions belong to the third category of regional transport. Although these
elements do not increase the level of internal regional cohesion the whole re-
gion may benefit from the access they create to the regional division of labour
and markets. Good interregional linkages may generate good chances for the
expansion of regional economy and may serve as a basis for the establishment
of further interregional relations at a later phase of regional development.
The  major elements  of interregional transport connections are as follows:
major railway routes connecting the regional centre with the capital city, or
other regional centres (intercity, fast train, fast cargo train services), coach (`red
letter plate' bus services necessary for transversal connection between rural
regional centres). In Germany the Interregio Zug intercity trains — because of
more stops provide a special service with special cars and longer travel time on
middle-term distance level.

Erdősi, Ferenc: From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport. In: Role of the Regions
in the Enlarging European Union. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2001. 182–193. p.
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F. Erdosi
Regional airport as a major element of regional
transport services
The interpretation of the meaning of the term 'regional airport' is ambiguous.
— In everyday context it is understood as an airport serving for the air traffic
of a whole region.
— In air traffic professionals' interpretation such airports — located in the
capital city or metropolises — are called 'regional' that are connected to
international (transcontinental, intercontinental or transnational air serv-
ice for a travel distance of longer than 1500-2000 km, with the provision
of 'regional services' by small (50-90 person capacity) jet planes, either
in the form of home airline service (in large countries) or of short-dis-
tance international flight services (naturally, in case of small countries,
this latter is the most typical — see Figure 2)
According• to the air professionals' interpretation — and to the European
practice — regional airports serve not primarily for home air traffic. They are
used for international (or 'quasi international', short international) air traffic
between two countries (with the exception of large countries). With regard for
the introduction of motorway/dual carriageway and railway intercity systems
and the current development level of market economy in such a small country
as Hungary, practically there are no chances for the reconstruction of scheduled
home air traffic services even in case Hungarian living conditions turn better.
Today only the very expensive air taxi system may carry passengers in home air
service. Thus, for a long time the low demand may force 'regional airports' to
connect rural cities and their surroundings with the neighbour country only. (for
business or recreational purposes). This may establish a direct air connection
between rural cities and foreign countries without the use of Budapest Ferihegy
Airport.
During the selection of the site of regional airports there is a strong clash of
interests between candidate cities, because they think a regional airport is a
great challenge of opportunity for them. Almost every county seat is planning
to build a public airport because they expect (through the quick accessibility
from European countries the airports provide) a larger volume of foreign in-
vestments and economic development. We are on the opinion that the demand
for cross-border flight services departing from rural airports is so low that two
or three regional airports are by far enough for the handling of their traffic.
Because of the low volume of air traffic the profitable operation of more than
two or three regional airports would be impossible. Nearly 100-200 thousand
passengers are needed for the cost effective operation of a regional airport
(equipped with a minimal level of avionic and navigation instruments and a

Erdősi, Ferenc: From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport. In: Role of the Regions
in the Enlarging European Union. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2001. 182–193. p.
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F. Erdosi
constant presence of border guard authorities). For this reason the majority of
county seats can expect small aircrafts for 6-10 passengers transporting dele-
gations or 1-3 person private aircrafts only landing on their grass runway in
daytime period. Compared to rural grass runway airports, the abandoned air-
ports of the Soviet and Hungarian military air forces (equipped with concrete
runway and appropriate navigation instruments) are relatively in a better posi-
tion. However, their remote location from cities and major economic centres,
the primary sources of the demand for transportation services is a great obstacle
in their conversion into civil airports (Debrecen airport is the only exception
from this rule). These military airports may serve as cargo airports only, pro-
vided that a fair amount of goods to be transported are available within a 100
km radius. The chances for this are very small. The chances are small for mili-
tary airports (such as Taszar near the city of Kaposvar) to operate as regional
airports because of their long flight permission procedure taking 1 week for
civil aircrafts. This is an unfortunate situation, because airports authorised by
law for multipurpose utilisation are generally located in favourable transport
geographic position with central location within the region. However, their
utilisation value is often limited by their long distance from the county seat.
Regional railways
The term 'regional railways' used in West European terminology has a differ-
ent meaning in Hungarian context. Instead of terminating, the Hungarian gov-
ernment is going to let out the abandoned, poor quality, loss-producing rail
sideways to regional railway companies. According to concepts, the activity of
a railway company would cover a territory of half county size, including some
short railway lines connecting some microregions. However, the greatest prob-
lem is not with the naming. The problem is in the realisation of plans.
Because of poor economic conditions county governments, local munici-
palities and firms of regional interest are unable to invest significant resources
into regional railway systems. (The Hungarian rural population's living
conditions, population density, relative mobility and transportation demand
indicators totally differ from the English, German and Swiss counterparts.
Thus, the practice of these countries cannot be followed automatically. The
municipalities' contribution to railway development is manifested in some
small things only, such as the renovation of stations, greening the station's
surroundings, or just repainting the waiting room).
However excellent and aggressive is the marketing of 'regional railway
systems', working as separate units only within MAV, the Hungarian State
Railway Company, they can increase the demand for transportation by a small

Erdősi, Ferenc: From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport. In: Role of the Regions
in the Enlarging European Union. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2001. 182–193. p.
Discussion Papers. Special
From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport
191
degree only. This is still far below the level needed for a cost effective
operation. Even by a 20-25 per cent of running costs (which is hard to achieve)
regional railways will be unable to compete with the flexible (from
manufacturer to doorstep) road delivery system concerning cargo delivery
tariffs.
The finance of the cohesion oriented infrastructure
One of the greatest dilemmas of our time is whether regional transport may be
standardised and if so, what requirements it should meet in the areas of network
structure, service routes, servicing quality (the frequency of services, speed,
comfort etc.). In the 20 th century almost every Hungarian governments were
setting up a concept for the replacement of Budapest-centred monocentric rail-
way structure with a transversal system to connect rural areas. Due to financial
problems or centralisation policy none of them has been carried out in practice.
Today regional transport may follow only a radial structure and the routing of
Pan-European corridors will coincide with this model. The number of high
quality road and railway lines being suitable for regional communication, is
very small. It is not sure, whether financial resources will be available for the
construction of the missing elements regional transport systems, and what
mechanism will co-ordinate the different interests during the formation of the
spatial system of regional transport networks. As long as regions are left with-
out independent financial resources, the central government should provide
primary financial assistance to regional transport systems. It is not taken for
granted that municipalities (even through the system of municipal associations)
will be able to finance these projects because they are overloaded with the fi-
nancial problems of road construction and maintenance having been forced to
`take over' these tasks from the central government's duties. Taking loans or
letting out the duties of regional transport into concession do not seem to be
appropriate financial solutions for the problem.
From the point of cohesion the selection settlements and areas to have direct
public transport connections with the centre of region has primary importance.
As 12-45 per cent of settlements have no direct bus or train connections with
their county seat, the demand for direct connection may only be approved only
for a limited number of settlements. In areas situated outside the core of region
only those cities or major villages may have direct connections with the centre
that are situated along intraregional road and railway routes.

Erdősi, Ferenc: From a Fiction to the Implementation: Regional Transport. In: Role of the Regions
in the Enlarging European Union. Pécs: Centre for Regional Studies, 2001. 182–193. p.
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F. Erdlisi
The administrative/functional region and the area
of regional transport
The spatial structure of transportation networks — in some cases due to their
special history of development — may have a different shape from that marked
by the border of region. (This is much more true in those regions that have been
formed as a synthesis of administrative districts). This may result in a stronger
interregional co-operation between cities situated at the opposing sides of re-
gional border than between the peripheral cities and the centre or core cities
within the region.
There are several examples for this phenomenon such as Si6fok at the bor-
der of South Transdanubia having more intensive interactions and transport
connections with Enying in the Middle-Transdanubian region. Also Baja in the
South Hungarian Plain has stronger relationships in the Southern Transdanu-
bian region than with Szeged. Marcali is more strongly bound to Keszthely than
to Kaposvar or Pecs. A similar pattern, regarding cross-regional border co-
operation, applies to Csurgo with Nagykanizsa, Kunszentmiklos with Budapest,
Simontornya with Sarbogard, Bataszek with Baja, Jaszfenyszaru with Hatvan
and Polgar with Tiszatijvaros.
Thus, regional borders should be regarded as mainframes only to which re-
gional transports systems should be tailored to but there are overlapping areas
on both sides of the border. In some cases these 'buffer zones' may have a
width of 25-40 kms.
For all that, regional borders are still important elements of regional trans-
port because the existing regional transport systems are too rigid within the
regional system to follow the formation of a new regional structure. There are
some opinions disregarding the importance of regional borders and not exclud-
ing the chances for the spatial redistribution of Hungary's regional system.
However, if the number of regions and consequently the regional borders are
changed, the regional transport system should follow these changes in all
(mainly financial) aspects.
Regional policymakers (especially in Eastern Europe) may overestimate the
importance of infrastructure and transport in regional economic development.
Pure transport infrastructure has no 'magic power' to generate economic devel-
opment. Transport has only a complementary force, as an addition to other fa-
vourable economic factors of regional development. The current cyclic phase of
the economy is also an important factor in the intensity of changes transporta-
tion effects may generate. In an economic recession period motorway construc-
tion alone is unable to generate significant economic development within a
region but in a booming economic period high capacity traffic routes may sig-
nificantly intensify economic development processes.