Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
CENTRE FOR REGIONAL STUDIES
OF HUNGARIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
DISCUSSION PAPERS
No. 7
Development Possibilldes
of Backward Areas in Hunpry
by
FARAGO, Laszlo and HRUBI, Lgszlo
Series editor: HRUBI, Laszlo
Pecs
1988
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
CONTENTS
Introduction
p. 1
Characteristic features of the multiple-disadvantaged situation
P. 3
Development principles of the backward areas in Hungary
p. 6
Development conception elements of the backward areas
P. 9
Some administration problems of the backward settlements
p. 18
Summarizing
p. 21
References
p. 22
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
Document Outline
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
INTRODUCTION
In both capitalist and socialist countries the central issues of concious regional development
policy are the situation of the areas permanently lagging behind and the possibilities of their
catching up with the other areas. The basic tendency and mechanism of socio-economic
development lead to a differentiated structural development of areas due to the diverse natural,
economic, administrative and social conditions. As result of this privileges are being accumulated at
one end of the scale and disadvantages at the other end. At the same time the presence of
development policy aiming at creating a balanced structure is desirable not only on account of
socio-political and social reasons but also in view of the efficient functioning of society and
economy - as evidenced by the practical experience of the past period. In principle, the category of
equilibrated structure includes also regional structure as an element irrespective of the fact whether
the mechanism of management and administration is able to assert the regional aspect and to what
extent it can talce account of it. A development policy with strong internal priorities aimed at
extensive-quantitative growth and concentrated in both organizational and economic aspects
results in a polarized regional structure inevitably creating backward areas where lagging behind
covers several moments of the socio-economic life, that is to say the disadvantages are being
accumulated. Subsequently the potentialities which might provide any chances of c,atching up at all
may be wasted. Thus we can conclude that socio-economic development has a selective impact
upon certain areas: regional differentiation is an objective process. At the same time development
policy should control, influence this differentiation for social and (in a narrow sense) economico-
political reasons in such a way that bacicwardness and disadvantages may not be accumulated
lastingly in certain points of the space, in settlements and within a smaller-larger range of regions.
If development policy is unable to assert the endeavour towards and equalized regional structure,
over-polarization may arise and the decline of certain areas will become irreversible.
The regional development of the past longer period in Hungary (and in the socialist
countries in general) was determined by economic development policy (in a narrow sense) to an
incomparably greater extent than by regional policy with its restricted scope of authority of
decision-making and weaker mechanism. Economic development policy had a character of nearly
exclusive sectorial approach taking account mainly of establishment. Its entire system of planning,
accounting, administration, regulation and incentives was based upon this approach strengthening
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2
it thereby. This development policy course was an extensive-growth-oriented economic policy with
hegemony of industry (industrialization) and development of the capital and towns. It could not
integrate different aspects and left them to the partial policies of complementary character with
restricted authority, ensuring formally the possibility of reconciliation, harmonization, in brief, that
of active reaction. The construction became more and more contradictory at the development level
reached by the 1970s mostly because of the revaluation of the ousted factors, or rather because of
the obvious manifestation of the importance of their role in development. Besides having to face
more and more significant sectorial-structural disturbances economic development could less and
less cope with "non-sectorial" spheres, such as infrastructure or environmental protection and in
this connexion it could meet decreasingly the requirement of a more equilibrated regional
structure. The majority of problems is basically the consequence of the established socio-economic
mechanism. That is politics continuously registered the relative backwardness of infrastructure
from the 60s, indeed paying particular attention to some of its branches in specific programmes
from time to time; in spite of the recognition, however, no substantial break-through took place
(note: similarly to the other socialist countries). In the 70s politics perceived the consequences of
the imbalancedness of regional development, the fact that there are significant divergences in living
standards and amidst the general labour shortage employment difficulties arise in certain regions.
Sometimes several effective measures were talcen as well. But artificial separation between
economic development policy in a narrow sense and regional development policy has survived.
Under the given mechanism, however, the politics were unable to correct the basic socio-
economic processes. Owing to its strongly restricted scope the development policy of regions and
settlements could not play an important part in this correction. In addition to this typically
centralized tendencies asserted themselves even within its reach of influence, further strengthening
the differentiating effect of economic development policy (taken in a narrow sense) on regions.
The present situation of the bacicward, disadvantaged zones has been formed by these
factors. The acuteness and depth of the problem is further increased by the fact that the whole
economy is characterized by serious disturbances of functioning, the hidden contradictions have
come to light at the same time, significant revaluation is under way and all these give rise to the
growth and acceleration of backwardness, the increasing loss of perspective as well as to the
regional expansion of the affected areas.
The 12/1980-85 Decision of the Parliament on the long-term tasks of the development of
regions and settlements assigns the continuation of the development of bacicward areas as a central
task. To promote its implementation the Council of Ministers adopted a socio-economic
programme on the accelerated development of the economically backward areas in 1986. This
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progamme - although its general objectives and principles were formulated in accordance with the
consideration of the requirements of long-term development - can remain a plan only for a shorter
periodon account of the existing condition and difficulties of economic development. The
programme - owing to the scarcity of fmancial means - is a kind of a minimal programme, where
stress is laid upon the fact that the gravest social tensions of the settlements in the worst situation
(mainly the lack of local employment) should be mitigated. The size of the range of settlements
restricted in this way also points to the weight of this regional problem, since 537 settlements are
classified as bacicward in the plan (this amounts approximately to one-fifth of the total number of
settlements in Hungary) where there are about half a million inhabitants. According to expert
investigations the proportion of disadvantaged settlements of rural character may be the
double/treble of it in reality.
The processes of the period following the adoption of the Government programme - the
disruption of the extemal and internal equilibrium of the economy, the appearance of critical
branches and depression zones, the imperative of economic restructuring, restrictive economic
policy - have evidently enhanced further the extent of the problem of regional backwardness.
In the course of the economic and political reformation the regional issue of the backward
zones came into limelight again, the shaping of a mature development strategy is a task of pressing
necessity.
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE MULTIPLE-DISADVANTAGED SITUATION
In the terminology of special Hungarian literature the multiple-disadvantaged situation is a
lasting condition characterized by the accumulation of the related, mutually stregthened individual
disadvantages of socio-economic existence and development. This condition can be summarized by
the follovving criteria:
- The economic base (and mainly the industry) is relatively underdeveloped or perhaps
utterly missivag, the income-producing ability of the region or settlements is rapidly declining.
- As a result of this migration talces dimensions leading to the distortion of the
demographical structure; the population of the settlements gets too old, the composition of
education, employment etc. deteriorates, the natural self-reproducing ability decreases.
- The living conditions are below the average by relative and absolute standards as well,
within this infrastructure is underdeveloped above all, often even the basic supplies are missing.
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Apart from this more tangible phenomena and disadvantages can be revealed which are
called as a rule peripheric situation. These include:
- the low level of transport and communication relations;
- the low-level position of settlements in the widely taken hierarchical system of regional
management, and within this mainly the administrative authority of less significance, and in this
connexion the relative scarcity of development funds, the greater distance from the decision-
making centres;
- location along the border which implies the vicinity of the national and county borders as
well.
Finally, in Hungary experience shows today that there still exists a general characteristic and
this is the small-village-character. Although in principle - as evidenced by international examples -
it is not inevitable for a small village to be always at disadvantage, in Hungary it is the regions with
small villages (where the number of inhabitants is often less than 1000 and not infrequently less
than 500) where these disadvantages are accumulated in the first place.
From the facts mentioned above it follows that depressed zones (e.g. the areas struggling
with really serious crisis in consequence of the predominance of iron metallurgy and mining) are
not included in this category, though the essential tasks are the same. The reason for separating
them can be accounted for by the fact that the possibilities and means of regional development
strategy are different in the case of the depressed zones. To be precise in Hungary the category of
backward areas applies to the areas of rural character.
In the historical evolution of the multiple-disadvantaged situation economic
underdevelopment has a primary role among the reasons, which is revealed in the lack of
employment prospects or in their structural one-sidedness as well. With a view to the existence and
development of settlements the economic base functions more and more exclusively by means of its
income-producing ability. The income-producing ability is important from the point of view of
settlement development in two ways:
- on the one hand as a resource of development and operation of settlements through the
mechanism of regulation (or other means of distribution or redistribution)
- on the other hand on account of the income of the employed population derived from
work.
In the multiple-disadvantaged zones industry has a direct settlement-forming power outside
the towns only within a small range of communities. Practically in the formation of the
disadvantageous situation of villages the lack or underdevelopment of the locally (or in the
microregions) located industrial potential played a determining role. The industrialization wave of
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the country-side in the 70s mostly avoided the areas qualified to be at disadvantage today.
Naturally, the situation would not be very much better even if it had happened otherwise. That is to
say - despite its obviously positive effect - in the course of implementation this process was
decisively motivated not by the effort to form the spatial structure of the economy rationally but by
- the relocation of the unwanted part of the industrial units of the capital,
- expansion of large enterprises (labour-extensive growth),
- and in accordance with these lessening of the employment deficiencies in certain regions.
In general it was not "the whole enterprisal function" that was decentralized but some
phases of production instead often based on a rather underdeveloped technical-technological base.
Their existence and development have been dependent on the parent company. Paradoxically
regional decentralization practically strengthened the dependence of the region or settlement on
the external decision-making centres. The industry "obtained" in this way could hardly mean a
durable and realistic economic potential. Characteristically enough when the parent company is
under the pressure of harder budgetary constraints the process of disinvestment is under way at
once in these areas. Industrialization of this kind cannot solve the regional problems in the long
run because it results merely in the "colonization" of the countryside.
Today a much more differentiated factor is the basic and auxiliary activities of agricultural
enterprises. The natural and economic conditions of large-scale farming in these regions are mostly
unfavourable. In spite of this - as usual in agriculture in Hungary - it is the large-scale mass
production which is characteristic: this was "dictated" by the traditions of the economy, the systems
of regulation and subsidies or even by the informally manifested central expectations of politics as
well. On account of the shortage of specialists, underdeveloped technology or management
problems arising from other reasons the tensions are deepened to such an extent that even the
conditions of simple reproduction are not created. Economy of agricultural units in this regions, as
a matte of fact, is maintained by the continuous budgetary subsidies. The scarcity of capital, the
geographical and in general economic distance from the market, from industry, do not make it
possible for the auxiliary (non-agricultural but for example industrial, commercial) activities to
come into being and play a compensating role in these very areas. As agriculture is the main
economic base in the respective regions, the agricultural employment rate is very high there (about
double of the average of Hungary). There is a considerable over-full-employment in agicultural
enterprises due to local pressure. With differentiation, the decrease in the self-supporting capacity
arising from the stricter system of economic regulation as well the freed labour cannot refltix to the
near vicinity without having to give up their domiciles. The industry and the tertiary sphere are
both unable to receive them in the region as a result of underdevelopment.
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The inefficiency of the economic base playing an essential role in the life of the settlements,
the low level of its income-producing ability give rise to the increasing lag,ging behind of
infrastructural development. In line with this the erosion of the population of the settlements is
being accelerated as well. Where the three processes (i.e. backwardness of the economic base
lagging behind of infrastructure and erosion of population) coincided earlier in an extensive way,
the decline of the settlements - under the well-known socio-economic conditions - is practically
most probably an irreversible process. For the development policy of regions and settlements a field
of realistic intervention is represented by those settlements or groups of settlements in which this
chain of processes has not come into existence yet or is only in its first stage. It is possible only in
this field to revitalize these areas and re-start the self-supporting social and economic processes 131
means of transitory c,entral subsidization.
Today lagging behind in socio-economic development is mainly a regional problen
concerning local problems of the settlements too. That is to say, within the backward or multiple-
disadvantaged zonesthere are divergences of internal development like elsewhere in general. It alsc
means the regional developments and those aimed directly and locally at settlements (if such a
distinction can be made at all) are to be implemented together, in harmony with each other.
Obviously we cannot expect the whole range of affected settlements in bacicward regions to cad:
up with settlements of mean or well developed regions or in many cases even the prevention of
further lagging behind. Part of settlements within the zones at disadvantage is not likely to be
revitalized, at best these settlements can be temporarily maintained by means of further and further
central subsidies. In the long run, however, this artificial survival cannot be carried out and regional
policy carmot undertake to carry it out at all. Though the prevention of the further falling behind of
the zones at disadvantage as regions and their catching up with the other areas in the long run may
not have a realistic option in the final account.
DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES OF THE BACICWARD AREAS IN HUNGARY
In shaping the strategy of making the multiple-disadvantaged zones catch up with the other
zones basically there are two alternative approaches. The first one is the socio-political approach
which intervention is aimed at moderating and somewhat compensating for the disadvantageous
consequences instead of the systematic alteration of the basic regional processes: within th(
framework of a separate "provisional" plan practically "subsidies" are geographically assigned and
granted. This alternative was taken by the aforementioned government programme. There is nc
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doubt that the main outward forms of disadvantageous situation and in this connection the socio-
political responsibility and the scarcity of resources to be expended on the taslcs exercise strong
pressure in favour of this very alternative. Beyond doubt in a human-centred society the most
logical conclusion is that the improvement of multiple-disadvantaged situation, or more precisely,
the improvement of the situation of the people living under these circumstances °vying to objective
factors is the responsibility of the whole society too. The fact that this solution may bring about
changes that are soon tangible is also in favour of this alternative because it is suitable for letting
off the social tensions. In our opinion, however, this approach cannot be effective in the long rtm,
at best it can be only a temporary and only complementary programme. Namely it cannot eliminate
the cause of the durable accumulation of backwardness.
The other, solely long-run approach may be called an economico-political one (for lack of a
better name). According to our judgement the main point of this approach lies in the fact that in
the course of the restructuring of the economy the regional aspect also obtains an important role.
From the aspect of the efficiency of socio-economic development the basic principle to be adopted
is that besides the sectorial optima the regional conditions may also be resources of growth, which
implies among others the significant strengthening of the regional division of labour and within this
the promotion of the formation of an economic base corresponding to the regional endowments
and maximally utilizing them. Tallcing of the objectively differentiated regional effects of socio-
economic development, we should take into account the fact that the majority of the endowments
and conditions (e.g. human, infrastructural conditions of production etc.) playing an important role
in the selection are not natural but can be consciously shaped. Any restructuring which
concentrates only on sectorial productivity and follows economic efficiency talcen in a narrow sense
sets up its own limits in the long run. Restructuring should include the organizational and regional
decentralization of the industry and the tertiary sphere, the regionally proportional formation of
the intellectual potential and malcing regionally general the high level of accessibility of traffic and
communications in a wider perspective. With that missing the higher operation costs of society will
considerably worsen the overall social and macroeconomic efficiency of production composed of
partially profitable branches. That is in the long run the development of either the settlements or
the tertiary sphere may not be regarded merely as an expenditure-increasing or social overhead
cost activity or judged on the basis of some modern form of "fiscal rationalism" as it has been done
in Hungary (and other socialist countries as well) so far.
There is no doubt that the present regional structure of needs seems to counteract the
endeavours towards a more balanced regional structure, as the regional and local demands -
according to the logic of their appearance - are concentrated in the actual centres of the regional
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structure producing conspicuous bottlenecks. On the other hand, the process may become
unfollowable in the economico-political sense (in spite of the following development ideology) if
both the sectorial and regional development principles undertake to disperse only the neuralgic
points disregarding the reorganizing role of conscious intervention in the regional development.
In formulating the strategy of development of the backward areas the starting-point is on
the one hand the process and characteristics of the formation of the diasdvantageous situation and
the current endowments of the respective zones, the existing system of conditions on the other
hand. The present economic potential of these zones, its profitability arising from the level of
development and structure is not suitable for enriching the resources of development in the long
run particularly becau.se it has proved to be insufficient in the rec,ent past too. In the economically
backward areas the industry - if it exists at all - is structurally one-sided as a rule, less dynamic with
weak productivity and low income-producing ability, being regionally disproportionately located, all
in all it is underdeveloped in comparison with the long-term needs. The income-producing ability,
productivity and potential of agricultural plants is more developed nowadays as a rule, in many
places, however, on account of the weaker site endowments and tmfavourable farming conditions
their development is insufficient. With full knowledge of the international market of the
agricultural mass products and the exaggerated withdrawal of profit receipts of agricultura
enterprises development of even a slower pace can be predicted therefore this branch cannot be
expected either to provide more resources for the development of the settlements. With regard to
employment - after a temporary halt - the role of agriculture is likely to decrease in the long run,
thus its settlement-developing effect is to lessen in this respect too. As a result of this agriculture
may not be the primary or only base of the regions of rural character - within this that of the
multiple-disadvantaged regions - in the long run, even if the structure of production were
transformed due to the strengthening of the (e.g. industrial) auxiliary activity. The tertiary sphere is
underdeveloped, for the time being no tendencies can be discovered showing it could become
independent driving forces of the development of regions and settlements - as exemplified by other
countries - or provide a favourable base for the restructuring and innovative progress. The
productive and non-productive infrastructure - also in connection with the development of the
productive forces and the settlement network structure - is in general poorly developed without an
actually fimctioning homogeneous spatial system. Developed system of infrastructure can be found
at best only in a few centres that came into being through concentration (in the case of towns and
some large villages, but sometimes only partially).
On the basis of all this - in our opinion - the development of multiple-disadvantaged zones -
taking account of the available resources a.s well - cannot still be directly diverted to the so-cane(
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Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
9
innovative, intensive course today because the minimal spatial conditions are generally still missing.
In an intermediary, transitory stage the base upon which intensive development may be built is to
be established by strengthening and transforming the present bases, otherwise permanent
development is inconceivable. It follows from the afore-mentioned that in the long-term
development of these zones it is not expedient to implement in an accelerated way the conception
which has brought about considerable regional development elsewhere but to implement a new
integrate strategy instead which takes account of the new circumstances of socio-economic
development. The improvement of the economic base of settlements cannot be regarded merely as
an issue of employrnent but to the same extent it is also an issue of regional economic growth (and
productivity) and then the necessary basic tendency of development is determined also by the
general economic development strategy. That is to say the multiple-disadvantaged situation is
always reproduced, only if the former growth model of the developed zones is renewed, the
"removed" conception with its "material instruments" is inherited by the backward zones.
In the context of the general economic development strategy it should be taken as a starting-
point as well that despite the separation of domicile and workplace the large-scale mobility of the
population between the zones will not have the necessary conditions and possibilities in Hungary in
the near future either. Therefore the restructuring of the production potential and the organization
of supply in line with this regional principle will be of utmost importance for the long-term strategy.
DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTION ELEMENTS OF THE BACICWARD AREAS
In our view the long-term development conception of the multiple-disadvantaged zones - in
close connection with the development of the whole country - should be formulated in two stages.
The first stage covers the period to the mid-90s, the second one the period up to and including the
millenary.
In the first stage agriculture may serve as the primary base for the development of multiple-
disadvantaged zones in the future too. In order to be able to perform its function it is inevitable for
the agricultural economic units to increase their profitability which may be achieved in broad
outlines by the following means:
- the necessary and possible elimination of the objectively disadvantageous conditions with
the help of external support (e.g. soil amelioration);
- the transitory normative (through the system of regulators) counterbalancing of the
objectively disadvantageous endowments that cannot be economically ceased:
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Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
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a) by means of the creation of the external conditions of the decrease in production cost
(reduction of taxes and deprivals etc.),
b) by means of subsidization (development, support etc.);
- the alteration of the organization forms: where the conditions of efficient large-scale
farming can be maintained only at the cost of disproportionately high expenditure vvith the help of
durable state subsidization, it would only seem reasonable to return to small-scale farming (e g.
integrated small private farms, forms of specialized cooperatives and groups, family undertakings
etc.);
- modification of the production structure (both within the basic activity and in the
relationship of the basic and auxiliary activities of the agricultural units);
- interenterprisal specialization and the significant intensification of cooperation of the
agricultural organizations on the basis of mutual economic interests;
- the further development of agricultural technology, the extension of the necessary
infrastructural background.
With regard to industry this stage includes a task of two directions: on the one hand the
implementation of direct industrialization by means of the modernization and pos.sible expansion
of the existing base on the other hand the forming of a new long-term strategy of industrialization,
the preparation and latmching of its implementation.
The restructuring of industry is inconceivable vvithout the faster development of the
innovative spheres, which, in our opinion, grows out of being founded merely on the existing base.
In view of the long term in the majority of the present day industrial companies there is no
significant production-oriented research and development potential of the adequate level, in the
respective zones the scientific-technological background is rather one-sided, consequently the
development-oriented, innovative restructuring of the manufacturing industry requires internal or
external research import, unless the intellectual potential becomes more proportionate regionally.
Thence it follows that the required restructuring of the industry in the backward regions, its
strategy can be founded only on the active (offensive) support of the long-term development
projects of the national economy. In the elaboration of the new conception of industrialization the
issue of regional structure as an aspect should gain much greater importanc,e.
The industry is now faced with the basic task of the implementation of restructuring which
may lead to changes in the economic macrostructure of the settlements and different kinds of
regional units. This may involve an increase in the proportion of the tertiary sector in the majority
of settlements and in general will bring about less dramatic changes in the towns than in the
affected smaller settlements (villages). Moreover there may also be settlements and zones where,
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for example, the beginning of the exploitation of raw materiaLs or the establishment of a new
industrial project will basically change the macrostructure of production and the chain of significant
changes arising from this will affect the given settlement as well as its environment. This will,
however, be a less typical pattern. Another - from our point of view - essential concomitant of
restructuring will be the liquidation of unprofitable activities and plants. Since in Hungary the
profitability of the plants in the villages is frequently lower than that of the urban ones, the labour
power is less readily convertible, the relative standard of infrastructure is low, the required change
of product structure and introduction of new technologies are feasible above all in the central
(urban) factories. Therefore the exintence of numerous rural industrial plants will be queried in the
future. The reduction of unprofitable activities and plants may temporarily have an unfavourable
impact upon the local environment weakening the economic situation of enterprises and
settlements. Since the structural changes are as a rule accompanied by a reduction in the needs for
live labour, the former level of employment can be maintained only by means of creating new jobs,
reallocating the labour force or commuting within the small zones as far as possible, in some areas
even employment tensions may temporarily arise. Owing to the state compensation that the
workers get during the courses training them for a new trade or profession their income is not
reduced, which - due to inflation - does not grow either, and this occasionally involves a further
disadvantage. In the long run, however, both the companies and the settlements are interested in
restructuring if it really takes place in accordance with the international tendencies, if it at least
approaches those standards (infrastructural capacities may be freed, the influence exercised on the
environment may improve, the income relations are more favourable etc.) and if it results in a more
proportionate regional structure. Thus in contrast with the former practices even in economically
bacicvvard areas it is inadmissible to conserve out-of-date production by means of state subsidies
and short-term measures, instead the temporarily arising or intensifying difficulties should be faced
and the introduction of modern technologies promoted. Whilst even for reasons of employment
policy it is improper to maintain the less efficient jobs, it is necessary to subsidize the retraining and
mobilization of labour. Granting independence to the less efficient provincial plants is not always a
feasible arrangement. On the other hand, the mother house make it extremely difficult for the well-
functioning plant units to become independent, although it would be in the best interest of the
regions. Where the provincial plants are modern and can get on their own, the former spatial
decentralization should be followed by an organizational decentralization.
In setting the long-term objectives it is necessary to keep in view that the progressive
branches should transform the possible centres of zones (towns, large villages and maybe some
other villages) into industrial bases which are able to adopt innovative development and become
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12
poles upon which in a later period - in the second stage of the long term - the settlements of their
respective regions may be "strung" and - assuming an intensive system of relations - these poles will
be able to replace the wealcening local agricultural base . Furthermore, these poles - to a varying
degree - have to be also suitable for becoming the network centres of the ancillary industry or
perhaps those of the putting out system of a new type having asserted itself in the developed
countries. This network potentially may be structured upon the range of the viable settlements of
multiple-disadvantaged zones in several organizational forms, in a differentiated way.
We think that in the rural areas mainly small plants (with less than 50-100 workers)
belonging to the background (ancillary) industry may be established. The experience of the
developed countries indicates that such plants are required in a great number by modern economy
though a great majority of them is constantly replaced or restructured. Their changeability is fairly
great, so they require favourable conditions of settlements which can ensure adequate possibilities
of adaptation. Unfortunately, this chain of small industrial plants is missing now in Hungary (and in
other socialist countries as well).
The location of new productive projects and expensive technologies in smaller or larger
regional centres - and the improvement of accessibility - make possible the long-term
harmonization of economic efficiency and regional balancedness in the rural, economically
underdeveloped areas as well. By this means such a flexible, adaptive spatial structure may be
formed which is capable of reacting to the changes of the economy and market without collapsing
under the pressure of the restructuring of products. It must be stressed, however, that the
regionally concentrated development of production is suitable for developing the related rural and
within this disadvantaged zones only by means of the significant increase of accessibility and the
raise of the standards of communications. If such a close relations between the centre and its
environment cannot be ensured in some of the established centres or in the rural zones such a
centre (e.g. a town) does not exist, then the first step to be taken is the formation of the necessary
centres or system of relations.
In the long run (and within this in the first stage) the development of both agriculture and
industry requires the development of infrastructure in such a way that it can contribute to the
unfolding of the outlined guidelines in an offensive way. The main branches to be developed are
road traffic and telecommunication (the programme of the main cross-roads, the reconstruction
and modernization of the road network, on the other hand the development of the telephone and
telex systems which can be also suitable for establishing an integrated system of information) but
none the less important is the construction (and the increase of the capacities) of the energy- and
water-supplying networks according to the predictable needs and the establishment of other
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13
technical facilities (e.g. up-to-date buildings for the plants). A flexible industrial structure and a
production base capable of rapidly adjusting itself to the circumstances are conditioned upon the
potential industrial areas, the "industrial parks" which can be possessed or rented in principle. In
the long run, in our opinion, this can be achieved only by eliminating the secondary, following
position of the infrastructural sphere within the economic development policy - which is often
presented as an objective position - and by recognizing it as an active wmponent of economic and
regional development and growth.
The second stage would include the actual - intensive - course of development. On the basis
of the adequately developed system of settlement relations (communication network) on the one
hand the industrial, on the other hand the agricultural and probably tertiary sectorial development
poles would exist in a homogeneous and well-functioning system of settlements with both vertical
and horizontal courses of movement. In the regional system of the existence, development and
economic base of the settlements a new feature would be represented by the fact that
concentration would come into existence together with the adequate system of relations, that is
decentralization would aLso have a positive meaning.
In the development of traffic or in a wider sense in the improvement of communication
relations it is also important to overcome the contradictions experienced up to now. If we talce a
look at accessibility and the regional structure of supply organization and production capacities.the
incongruence becomes sharply distinct. The improvement of the conditions of transport means
firstly the modernization of the road network (elimination of cul-de-sacs between the settlements,
construction of main cross-roads, modification of radiate (capital-centred) network by means of
"horizontal" roads etc.), secondly malcing public transport more flexible (e.g. by running micro-and
mini-buses), thirdly the general improvement of the conditions of automobilization.
In our opinion transport has and will have a basic role in decreasing the gap between the
zones at disadvantage and the other areas. With regard to the small regions both in production
potential and in supply a concentrated development model will have real chances. And this requires
accessibility which adjusts itself to the necessary spatial movement of the population. In all
probability public transport will play a great role in the future. We do not believe that the
enterprisal or sectorial profitability of public transport should be an exclusive principle in the
course of development. It seems that the improvement of accessibility should be decided together
with the consideration of other "extra-sectorial" aspects. At the same time it is true that within the
framework of the present organizational system it is difficult, if not impossible, to make a multi-
aspect evaluation and assert the interests. On the other hand it is easier to form the organizational
system of transport than the settlement network. In addition to this issues of great importance are
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
14
raised by the level of general motorization. It is well-known - and exemplified by many counties -
that with a highly developed motorization level a more concentrated model, an implementation of
new development models of large or small zones Will have to face less obstacles. It is clear that the
improvement of the motorization level - similarly to other issues - exceeds the problem of the zones
at disadvantage, raising or requiring the solution of a number of questions connected with general
engineering, infrastructure, economics, social situation and even the way of living and with some
simplification we can conclude onc,e again the necessity of "infrastructural breakthrough" in
development policy.
Besides the improvement of the traffic conditions the prerequisite of the general use of
modern technical achievements is the simultaneous development of the telecommunication system.
An up-to-date informational system can be developed only in possession of telephones and wired
interconnections and at the same time today a geat number of population services can be "built
upon" the telephone-lines too.
The bacicwardness of Hungary is enormous in this respect and even within this the picture is
rather varied. Even between the larger regions there are differences in supply but the differences
are more conspicuous between the urban and rural zones.
The country-side and villages are inflicted above all by the disadvantages of underdeveloped
telecommunication. At the same time due to the lower density of population and underutilization
this is the very area where development is not profitable. Thus only state intervention could bring
about tangible results in this field. Possibility of contacts with of any point of the country at any
time should be regarded as a minimal programme. The developments should be mainly based on
up-to-date solutions, otherwise obsolete technics would be conserved. In line with this up-to-date
telecommunication services should also be developed.
By means of a highly developed telecommunication system the disadvantages of rural zones
would decrease and in combination with the advantages of the provincial environment it would
contribute not only to the increased retention of the population of these zones but also to the
reflux of highly qualified and sldlled labour into the villages. On the side of labour this would make
possible the decentralization of up-to-date technics in turn.
With these ideas in mind we should like to emphasize that today the reduction of the
backwardness of the zones at disadvantage cannot be carried out by means of the traditional
interference in infrastructure any longer, at the same time any kind of long-term development
conception is infeasible in these zones without a shift in economic development policy course as
required by infrastructure.
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
15
The general bacicwardness of the development level of infrastructure, which can be observed
particularly in the multiple-disadvantaged zones, is an obstacle to the growth of production as well
as to population supply. The main nodes of the development of infrastructure of production
obviously coincide with the basic questions of infrastructure of population supply though an
additional regional issue is raised by the latter as well. With some simplification this could be
formulated as follows: there is a socio-economic need for the harmonized long-term development
of availability (accessibility) and the netvvork of supplying institutions. Even planning conceived in
the spirit of "fiscal rationalism" has to raise the question in the long run how much the socially
necessary local basic supply can cost and how much is the combined cost of the concentrated
construction and operation of supply of higher level made accessible realistically (and not in
principle) by means of availability as compared with the alternative when the social and individual
costs of receiving the people removed to towns and the value of the part of the national wealth left
in villages behind are added up. (The mains direction of people's removal has been so far in
Hungary direction from underdeveloped villages to towns.) Clear-sightedness is blocked by the fact
that while we are aware of the inevitable material consequences of the first alternative more or less,
we can only estimate or perhaps make guesses in connection with the second one owing to our
separate sectorial way of thinking, not to mention further social factors connected with social
welfare and equity, which have to be talcen into consideration in the final accotmt.
As we have already pointed out several times the disadvantageous situation is also
manifested in the relative backwardness of living standards, in the underdeveloped infrastructure,
and the direct way of moderating these disadvantages is to develop infrastructure. The
development should have two moments of extreme importance: the harmonized development of
transport (accessibility) and spatially divided supply. The basic supply - according to democratic
principles - has to be locally provided.
The present routine (planning - organization - financing) handles the organization of
transport and supply (as two separate branches) quite apart from each other. In our opinion
decisions concerning the supply development are inseparable from the traffic conditions. The basic
traffic conditions provide a favourable framework for the possible merging of the supply
institutions, under the conditions of inadequate availability, however, the centralization of these
institutions worsens the standard of supply. In planning concentrated supply (supply institution far
from the domicile) and also in making calculations with regard to economicalness it should be
taken into consideration that services or users should be moved in space. Taking account of these
relationships in judging the profitability of some public transport line we catmot be content with
comparing merely the costs and the fares. The lack of adequate traffic communications may justify
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
16
the needs of deconcentration, expenditure of which may by far exceed the losses of transport lines.
The analysis of the advantages and disadvantages or any regrouping of the whole system of
relations would probably result in a spatial structure which is very different from the present one.
Besides above-mentioned problems there is the factor of automobilization, the rising costs
of which with the well-known difficulties of its development and improvement in Hungary - even
assuming unchanged system and level of supply - may lead to the deterioration of the supply of the
population through the deterioration of accessibility. In spite of this there is not any sign of the
appearance of the regional - and other - aspects in the understanding of motorization or in the re-
evaluation of its role in development policy..
As today the multiple-disadvantaged areas in Hungary are the regions with small villages,
the improvement of the supply by institutions will have to face several difficulties due to the
restriction of development resources. These difficulties are worsened further by the negative
general approach to institutional hierarchy and concentration, which is observable nowadays.
In our view the hierarchy of structure and certain concentration of the system ,of supply
institutions arise not only from the arbitrariness of planning or hierarchy of settlement network
functions but it is an inherent part of the supply system and a historical category at the same time.
If we disregard the hierarchical system of the settlements and institutions, among the initial
conditions of the organization of supply on the one side there is the geographically separated
population with its needs embodied in differentiated demands, and on the other side the entire
multitude of the supplying functions which are differentiated mainly on the basis of their
"sectorial" peculiarities. These two sides should be matched and linked according to the prevailing
socio-economic conditions in order to make possible the adequate fulfilment and use of these
functions.
The matching should decisively follow the spatial aspect with the expected standard of
accessibility and fulfilment as a criterion (measured by use frequency) on the one side and the
management conditions of development and operation (dimension, special line etc.) and
expenditure (as resource constraints) on the other side. An optimal spatial structure can be
achieved only by the consideration of both sides.
In the organization of the supply a good and only long-term changing basis is provided if we
know what proportion and what strata of the population (would) make use of the given form of
supply. This can be determined in general terms but the local (regional) specifica can be recognized
as well. It is generally accepted that the forms of supply to be provided locally (at the level of
settlements or residential districts) are the ones used by the population every day (basic or general
functions). Concentration may be increased proportionally to the eventuality of the use of the
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
17
respective function. Thus some kind of hierarchy comes into mistence also on the basis of the
supplied population or frequency of use and it is only a matter of approach which should be set at
the top of the hierarchy. As the fulfilment and use of functions take place within the framework of
settlements, in many cases it is expedient to assign the functions to concrete settlements or
settlement types in general. In our opinion in the 1970s the negative phenomena arising from
excessively hierarchical structure of the settlement network and the subsequent condemnation was
due to the fact that the hierarchy pertaining to this particular "branch" was generalized, used and
projected over other fields of life with different pattern.s of behaviour.
Nevertheless basic supply is a dynamic category which can be determined by starting from
existing needs at a given level of socio-economic development. This also implies that the concept of
basic supply may differ from settlement to settlement, from zone to zone, and this is to which
higher level supply has to be adjusted. The concentration of supplying institutions accompanied by
adequate accessibility is to be regarded as a normal way of development when it rests on a balanced
basic supply structure of regions and settlements and the division of supply functions is determined
not by the sectorial but by the spatial aspects, while concentration does not lead to the compulsive
meeting of the recognized social demands out of harmony with the actual regional structure.
The development possibilities of the multiple-disadvantaged zones are chiefly connected
with the traditional, general functions of the settlements. Together with these the specific functions
arising from the special conditions of settlements may become independent resources of
development, forming a part of the long-term programme. With regard to the multiple-
disadvantaged rural zones such a special function may become in principle the role in tottrism - and
within this rural tourism. Today the impact of tourism on settlements is not everywhere favourable
yet but it contributes to their development and the enhancement of their prestige. The spreading of
rural holiday-making, however, is impeded by the shortage of available flats in the villages where
the increase of employment and supplementary income would be greatly needed.
The natural endowments and special conditions of the zones at disadvantage have more to
offer for the purpose of tourism unlike the system of conditions of the receiving ability, since it
could be created only by means of significant developments. Therefore in the long run the special
resort and recreational function can potentially cover only a limited number of settlements as a
resource of development.
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
18
SOME ADMINISTRATION PROBLEMS OF THE BACKWARD SETTLEMENTS
Although it is not an issue of primary importance, still administration structure is a sphere
to be relatively easily adjusted in the long run. The multiple-disadvantaged zones have a limited
possibility or even lack of asserting the local interests, they are far from the decision-making„
development centres having indirect, less efficient relationship with them. We can call it a
"peripheric position in administration- organization" as we did earlier. The related changes in the
system of administration, economy and fmances sometimes created significant possibilities of
progress, yet on the whole, our knowledge of the evolution of local autonomy does not strip the
question of its topicality.
It is easy to see without lengthier discussion on public administration science that one of the
most factor in this respect is the administration status of so-called co-community. (In regions with
smaller settlements - as a rule - some communities belong to a joint municipal council. The council
seat is the so-called centre-community and the other communities are called co-communities. Co-
communities have so-called local boards of community's members of the joint municipal council.)
In the range of the multiple-disadvantaged settlements a great proportion of the entire population
lives in co-communities and the internal differentiation within this range is significant. This is
another reason for raising the question of the proper "handling" of the relationship between
centre- and co-community. From the aspect of administration and management, however, there are
further categories that can be classified as settlements at disadvantage, particularly from the side of
the assertion of interests. Thus we have to note that the apparatus of larger villages - as opposed to
the joint (or even independent) municipal council - is more closely and efficiently tied to the
regional and county administration by virtue of its gyeater articulation and professional grounding
because it is able to support its preferred interests with a wider scale of arguments anyway.
Consequently the numerous municipal councils with the earlier intermediation of the district
council offices and now with the interposition of the town councils (which are, to malce matters
vorse, rivals in a stronger position) have far less potential chances to effect their individual interests
in the mechanism of regional and county decision-making and allocation.
Furthermore the concept of disadvantageous situation from the pont of view of
administration and organization applies to the councils that have weaker ties with the inhabitants
and have less prestige in the eye of their electors, for the simple reason, for example, that the gap
between their development activities and the expectations of the population is larger than usual, or
because their officials are not highly respected. The problems of the relationship between the local
- municipal - councils and the population gain a special significance or may become impeding
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
19
factors when the willingness of the population to sacrifice is specified as one of the bases of
development resources.
It can be regarded as a disadvantage of administration and management if the relations of a
council in administration and in actual supply, transport and economy have developed towards
different centres. In this case a great part of the energy of the local administration is absorbed by
co-ordination and the chances of co-operation on the basis of mutual interests are small from the
outset. Another factor impeding efficiency is the great number of co-communities which leads to
extra-burdens and contradictions manifested in the corporate, administrative and management
activities.
In short the multiple-disadvantaged situation is manifested also from the side of the
administration status, the system of conditions of administration-management, intermediation by
towns, the great number of co-communities, weak ties with the population, management without
prestige and experience, the not quite competent special administration, separation of the relations
of administration and supply.
An institution suitable for relieving the disadvantageous situation having c,ome into being
from the aspect of administration is the local board which can equally serve the representation of
the interests of the co-communities against the centre, their articulation, forming closer ties with
the population. We must not forget, however, that a local board is merely an abstract possibility the
actual effect of which depends to a great extent upon the personal composition of the boards, the
positions that the members of the board can make a good use of in decision-making, the
congenialitay of the population, the division of labour between the joint council and the local
board, the authorities and financial means assigned to the competence of the local board. In
respect of the latter - since the councils themselves make a decisiOn on it - efforts should be made
at reaching a situation where the local joint councils are willing to convey, if possible, such an
amount of financial means to the local boards - fixing it normatively - which enables them to
dispose of their own resources for minor developments. Significant voluntary (financial)
contribution and voluntary work can be expected of the population only if in addition to these
resources there are state revenues guaranteeing the accomplishment of the local targets. The
normative "conveyance" of the resources makes it possible for the local board to elaborate some
management strategy as well. We also Icnow that one of the signs and at the same time
consequences of the decline of small villages is the lethargy of the population and their boredom
with state (council) solicitude. With regard to "politics" and "public sentiment" it would be very
beneficial if the population had a chance of comparing its own sacrifices with the development
intentions of the state (council) or rather with the tangible material results.
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
20
Another factor having corrected the disadvantageous situation was the elimination of the
districts from the regional system of administration but some additional commentary should be
made on it. Municipal autonomy and attractivity imply a greater guarantee by virtue of the
character of toi,vn mediation - so different from that of district mediation - since there does not
exist a hierarchical relationship between town and communities. We also have to reckon with the
fact that co-ordinative relationship of towns and communities - particularly in the case of obtaining
development funds - may imply rivalizing too in which the communities do not have equal
opportunities for asserting their interests.
In our opinion in the process of the reducing of the gap between the multiple-disadvantaged
and other zones the decision-maldng-mediating role of the towns should be minimized and
neutralized with regard to communities, at the same time in the field of urban supply efforts should
be made to schedule and locate the developments the implementation of which is the most urgent
for the multiple-disadvantaged zones (settlements) with the consideration of the needs of zones.
This peculiar "two-way direction" reveals the already mentioned fact the multiple-disadvantaged
situation is, in our opinion, mainly a problem of regions and within this that of the settlements too.
With regard to local administration the reduction of the gap between the disadvantaged and
other zones can rely on two fundamental bases - on the communities (local boards) and the county
administration.
We have to emphasize again that the political justification, even benefit of the reduction of
the gap between the multiple-disadvantaged and other zones depends on whether all the available
resources - together with the normative (budget) development possibilities - can ensure a scope for
the local councils where they can decide for themselves the directions, manner and scheduling of
appropriation according to their own priorities. Such a degree of autonomy will somewhat assist
the local councils vvith solving the challenging task of creating harmony between the spatial and
sectorial priorities at the local level too. Intersettlement co-ordination and co-operation may play a
role in this to the extent the regulation allows it and makes them interested in respect of
management and financing. The rationality and economic benefits of this are not queried in
principle although it is without genuine traditions and neither are there any tendencies which
would indicate evolution in this direction.
The relationship of centre and its zone outlined earlier in the description of the second
development stage may bring about a new quality in the horizontal co-operation. The planned two -
level administration system will establish one of the bases within the bounds of its power. The
common interests and mutual interestedness, however, can come into existence only by the
dominance of the economic character of the regional units (e.g. the possibility and necessity of
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
21
enterpreneurship). For the time being this possibility is contained in the new system of council
management regulation but it can become a reality only by means of the establishment of the
necessary material (financial) and personal conditions. The gradual formation of this flexible
management with autonomous interests can be accomplished with the condition that the
paternalism of the top management is suppressed and its decision-making and fmancial sphere of
authority is reduced to the typical tasks connected with the whole network of settlements or the
larger regions.
In this process, however, a new quality of regional development policy must also be present a
fundamental element of which is the actual co-ordittation of the narrowly taken economic
(enterprisal) sphere and hereby of the particular integration of it within the regional system.
SUMMARIZING
In summary we can say that the differentiation and selection of settlements and regions is an
objective process, the relative regional bacicwardness will always arise in different forms and with
different intensity. Therefore the necessity of reducing the gap between the multiple-disadvantaged,
generally rural and other zones has to be formulated for socio-political as well as for narrowly
taken economic efficiency (growth) reasons. The moderation and occasional elimination of
backwardness can be accomplished only by an integrated long-term development strategy aimed at
influencing the development processes of settlements and regions. A programme composed of
spatially and sectorially assigned individual measures to moderate social tensions as consequence of
backward position of certain regions and settlements cannot be effective in the long run. This long-
term conception has to be integrally matched with the scope of the socio-economic macroprocesses
and the path of development considered to be necessary from the point of view of the whole
society. The levelling moment of the regional development policy must not part with it even for a
short while because this could produce only temporary results at a very high cost.
The moderation of the further widening of the gap and its elimination in the possible range
of settlements, the moderation and elimination of the disadvantageous situation exceed the present
range of effect and system of instruments of regional development policy. We assume that in the
future the likely expanded reproduction of the zones at disadvantage will again raise with a number
of other regional issues the problem of the organic integration of the regional principle in
economic development policy required for the modernization of the management and planning
system of the national economy. Even if the volume of the system of instruments and institutions
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
22
designated today for the moderation of regional baclo,vardness grows - which cannot be made
probable for that matter - it will not be able to meet the set objectives or give rise to durable
improvement in itself.
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in Hungary). Alcademiai Kiad6, Budapest.
BELUSZKY, P. - SIKOS T., T. (1982): Magyarorszag falutipusai (Village Types in Hungary). MTA
Foldrajztudomanyi Kutat6 Intezet. Elmelet - modszer - gyakorlat. 25. Budapest.
ENYEDI, GY. (1980): Falvaink sorsa (Destiny of Our Villages).Magveto Konyvkiad6, Budapest.
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Budapest.
FARAGO, L. - HRUBI, L. (1987): Az elmaradott falusias tersegek felzarkoztatasinalc lehet6segei
(Possibilities of Catching Up of Bacicward Rural Regions). Ter es Tkrsadalom. 4. pp. 72-
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GULACSI, G. (1986): Infrastruktura-fejlesztes - tanacsi beruhA74sok - teriiletfejlesztesi politilca
(Development of Infrastructure - Investments of Councils - Regional Policy).
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GULACSI, G. - RONA, T. - BARTICE, I. etc. (1988): A szemelyi jovedelemad6 es a tanacsi
gazdalkodas (Personal Income Tax and Council Economy). Tervgazdasagi Kaziemenyek.
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HORVATH, GY. (1987): Development of the Regional Management of the Economy in East-
Central Europe. Discussion Papers. 5.
LACKO, L. (1988): Twilled fejlodes, politika, tervezes (Regional Development, Policy, Planning).
Alcademiai ICiado, Budapest.
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Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
23
MORILL, R. L. - SYMONS, J. (1977): Efficiency and Equity. Aspects of Optimum Location.
Geographical Anabrsis. V ol. IX. July. pp. 215-225.
MOSELEY, M. J. (1979): Accesibility: the rural challenge. Methuen and Co. Ltd., London.
PALNE KOVACS, I. (1988): Chance of Local Independence in Hungary. Discussion Papers. 6.
Tdrsadalmi-gazdasdgi program a gazelasdgilag elmaradott tersegek fejlesztesenek vorsitdsdra (1986)
(Socio-economic Programme on Acceleration of Development of the Economically
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Document Outline
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
The Discussion Papers series of the Centre for Regional Studies of the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences was launched in 1986 to publish summaries of research findings on regional and urban
development.
The series has 3 or 4 issues a year. It will be of interest to geographers, economists, sociologists,
experts of law and political sciences, historians and everybody else who is, in one way or another,
engaged in the research of spatial aspects of socio-economic development and planning.
The series is published by the Centre for Regional Studies.
Individual copies are available on request at the Centre.
Postal address:
MTA Regionalis Kutatasok
Centre for Regional Studies of Hungarian
Kozpontja
Academy of Sciences
H-7601 PECS
P.O. Box 199
Pf.199
7601 PECS
HUNGARY
Phone: (72) 12 755
Telex: 12 475
Director general: Gyorgy ENYEDI
Editor: Laszlo HRUBI
*
*
*
Forthcoming in the Discussion Papers series:
The Role of the Accessibility in the Development and Functioning of Settlements
by
ken SZORENYINE KUKORELLI
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
Papers published in the Discussion Papers series
No. 1 OROSZ, Eva (1986): Critical Issues in the Development of Hungarian Public Health with
Special Regard to Spatial Differences
No. 2 ENYEDI, Gyorgy - ZENTAI, Viola (1986): Environmental Policy in Hungary
No. 3 HAJDO, Zoltan (1987): Administrative Division and Administrative Geography in
Hungary
No. 4 SIKOS T., Tamas (1987): Investigations of Social Infrastructure in Rural Settlements of
Borsod County
No. 5 HORVATH, Gyula (1987): Development of the Regional Management of the Economy in
East-Central Europe
No. 6 PALNt KOVACS, Ilona (1988): Chance of Local Independence in Hungary
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
Discussion Papers 1988. No. 7.
Development Possibilities of Backward Areas in Hungary
ISSN 0238-2008
Kiadja a Magyar Tudomanyos Alcademla Regionalis Kutatasok Kozpontja
Felelos kiad6: Enyedi Gyorgy akadamikus, foigazgat6
Sorozatszerkeszto: Hrubi Laszlo
Kesztilt: TEMPORG, POcs — 1127/89
Feld& vezeto: Dr. KaHal Sandor
Document Outline